Ultrasonic flowmeters: temperature gradients and transducer geometry effects

Ultrasonic flowmeter performance is addressed for the case of cylindrically shaped flowmeters employing two reciprocal ultrasonic transducers A and B so as to measure time-of-flight differences between signals transmitted from transducer A towards B followed by an equivalent signal transmitted from transducer B towards A. In the case where a liquid flows through the flowmeter's measuring section ("spoolpiece"), the arrival times of the two signals differ by an amount related to the flow passing between the two transducers. Firstly, a detailed study of flow measurement errors with mean flow in the laminar flow regime is carried out as a function of the mode index and the transducer diameter/cylinder diameter ratio in the case where no temperature gradients are present in the flowmeter sensor. It is shown that all modes except the fundamental mode overestimate the mean flow by a factor of 33.33% while excitation of the fundamental mode solely give error-free measurements. The immediate consequences are that the flowmeter error decreases as the transducer diameter/cylinder diameter ratio approaches 1 from 0 reflecting the fact that the excitation level of the fundamental mode increases from almost 0 to 1 as this ratio approaches 1 from 0. Secondly, the effect on flowmeter performance due to flow-induced temperature gradients is examined. It is shown that the presence of temperature gradients leads to flowmeter errors at the higher-flow values even in the case where the fundamental mode is the only mode excited. It is also deduced that flowmeter errors in general depend on the distance between transducers A and B whether temperature gradients exist or not. This conclusion is not reflected in the usual definition of flowmeter errors given by the so-called mode-dependent deviation of measurement introduced in earlier works.     

Ultrasonic measurement of gas flow using electrostatic transducers

Ultrasonic gas flowmeters typically use narrowband piezoelectric transducer arrangements for interrogating the flow of gas in a pipe. In this work, the suitability of broadband electrostatic transducers operating at frequencies of up to 1 MHz for ultrasonic measurement of gas flow has been investigated. The transit time method of ultrasonic gas flow measurement was adopted and experiments were carried out using a laboratory test rig capable of producing a range of gas flowrates up to 17.5 m/s. The test rig also allowed easy interchange of different prototype flowmetering sections. Times of flight of ultrasonic waves interrogating the gas flow were measured using separate send/receive electrostatic transducer arrangements. Two flowmeter configurations were considered. The first interrogated the flow at 45 degrees in contra-propagating upstream and downstream directions. The second consisted of an up-stream interrogation at 45 degrees to the gas flow and an interrogation made normal to the flow direction. k factors correlating the fluid velocity along the ultrasonic path with the mean fluid velocity in the pipe were calculated using experimental ultrasonic data and anemometer measurements. All transducer configurations were numerically modelled using the computational fluid dynamics software package FLOTRAN (ANSYS Inc.). Theoretical gas flow velocities for both transducer arrangements were subsequently compared with experimental values and found to be in excellent agreement. A flow-dependent frequency shift of the received ultrasonic signals was also observed simultaneously with the transit time measurement.     

A new method for the demodulation of ultrasonic signals for cross-correlation flowmeters

Cross-correlation flowmeters using clamp-on ultrasonic transducers are particularly attractive for use in hostile or abrasive fluids. However, a phase difference is frequently found to exist between the envelopes of the received ultrasonic signals, which causes the correlation peak to become degraded, distorted, or even inverted. In this paper, an explanation for the phase errors is offered, and a new demodulation method, which eliminates these errors, is described.     

Realization of a multipath ultrasonic gas flowmeter based on transit-time technique

A microcomputer-based ultrasonic gas flowmeter with transit-time method is presented. Modules of the flowmeter are designed systematically, including the acoustic path arrangement, ultrasound emission and reception module, transit-time measurement module, the software and so on. Four 200 kHz transducers forming two acoustic paths are used to send and receive ultrasound simultaneously. The synchronization of the transducers can eliminate the influence caused by the inherent switch time in simple chord flowmeter. The distribution of the acoustic paths on the mechanical apparatus follows the Tailored integration, which could reduce the inherent error by 2–3% compared with the Gaussian integration commonly used in the ultrasonic flowmeter now. This work also develops timing modules to determine the flight time of the acoustic signal. The timing mechanism is different from the traditional method. The timing circuit here adopts high capability chip TDC-GP2, with the typical resolution of 50 ps. The software of Labview is used to receive data from the circuit and calculate the gas flow value. Finally, the two paths flowmeter has been calibrated and validated on the test facilities for air flow in Shaanxi Institute of Measurement & Testing.     

The development of recent high-power ultrasonic transducers for Near-well ultrasonic processing technology

With the reduction of crude oil throughout the world, enhance oil recovery technology has become a major oil research topics, which can greatly increase the recovery ratio of the crude oil before the dawning of renewable energy era. Near-well ultrasonic processing technology, as one new method, has attracted more attention for Enhanced Oil Recovery due to its low cost, good applicability and no environmental pollution in recent rears. There are two important relevant aspects about Near-well ultrasonic processing technology: (a) how to enhance the oil flow through the rocks into the pumping pool and (b) how to reduce the oil viscosity so that it can be easier to pump. Therefore, how to design a high-power ultrasonic equipment with excellent performance is crucial for Near-well ultrasonic processing technology. In this paper, recent new high-power ultrasonic transducers for Near-well ultrasonic processing technology are summarized. Each field application of them are also given. The purpose of this paper is to provide reference for the further development of Near-well ultrasonic processing technology.With the reduction of crude oil throughout the world, enhance oil recovery technology has become a major oil research topics, which can greatly increase the recovery ratio of the crude oil before the dawning of renewable energy era. Near-well ultrasonic processing technology, as one new method, has attracted more attention for Enhanced Oil Recovery due to its low cost, good applicability and no environmental pollution in recent rears. There are two important relevant aspects about Near-well ultrasonic processing technology: (a) how to enhance the oil flow through the rocks into the pumping pool and (b) how to reduce the oil viscosity so that it can be easier to pump. Therefore, how to design a high-power ultrasonic equipment with excellent performance is crucial for Near-well ultrasonic processing technology. In this paper, recent new high-power ultrasonic transducers for Near-well ultrasonic processing technology are summarized. Each field application of them are also given. The purpose of this paper is to provide reference for the further development of Near-well ultrasonic processing technology     

应用单相流量计测量油水两相流

为探讨单相流量计用于液液两相流参数测量的可行性和有效性,本文对文丘里管、涡轮流量计和椭圆齿轮流量计用于油水两相流测量的响应特性进行了实验研究.文丘里管和涡轮流量计的实验管径为15 mm,25 mm,40 mm,椭圆齿轮流量计的实验管径为25 mm和40 mm.油水两相流总体积流量范围为1～5 m3/h,油含率范围为15%～85%.实验结果表明,文丘里管在高油含率时测得的油水两相流流量比实际流量偏大4%～5%.涡轮流量计的测量误差随油含率升高呈现增大的趋势,最大测量洪差小于5%.椭圆齿轮流量计用于油水两相流测量时相对测量误差小于1.0%且基本不受油含率影响.     

超声波流量计在飞机燃油流量测试中的应用研究

燃油系统输油流量测试是飞机燃油系统地面模拟试验的一项重要内容;由于试验油箱内部的各管路与真实飞机油箱管路的布置是一致的,不适合在油箱内的狭小空间安装涡轮流量计,并且会破坏管路流阻特性;由于使用传统油箱油量标定的方法进行输油流量测量耗时耗力,所以需要采用一种新的技术或测量方法来完成油箱输油流量的测量;超声波流量计体积小,不会破坏输油管路流阻特性,防爆等级也符合试验要求;对超声波流量计在浸油状态下测试进行可行性分析,将超声波流量计在飞机燃油系统试验中实现创新性应用;通过试验证明了超声波流量计在飞机燃油流量测试中发挥了重要作用,并且首次将超声波流量计应用到飞机试验油箱内部输油管路的流量测试中,这对飞机其他系统的流量测试和飞机机上排故试验起到了重要作用。     

Simultaneous reconstruction of flow and temperature cross-sections in gases using acoustic tomography

This paper describes the use of air-coupled ultrasonic tomography for the simultaneous measurement of flow and temperature variations in gases. Air-coupled ultrasonic transducers were used to collect through-transmission data from a heated gas jet. A transducer pair was scanned in two-dimensional sections at an angle to the jet, and travel time and amplitude data recorded along various paths in counter-propagating directions. Parallel-beam tomographic reconstruction techniques allowed images to be formed of variations in either temperature or flow velocity. Results have been obtained using heated jets, where it has been shown that it is possible to separate the two variables successfully.     

Theory of transit time ultrasonic flowmeters

A theory of transit time ultrasonic flowmeters for clean fluids is developed from the equations of fluid mechanics applied simultaneously to the fluid and the sound vibrations. These equations are linearized (weak sound) and use is made of the electroacoustic reciprocity theorem to give a relation between the voltages and currents at the transducer terminals and the fluid velocity. The technique of “reciprocal operation” of a transit time ultrasonic flowmeter is described and the way this technique eliminates zero drift is explained. The theory can be applied to meters with broad sound beams (which provide a better average over velocity profiles) or meters in which the wavelength of sound is not necessarily small compared with the duct diameter. Small modificaition of the sound field (due to flow) is assumed and the resulting phase (or amplitude) shift of the received signal is expressed as an integral throughout the fluid of the dot product of the fluid velocity and a weight vector defined in terms of the sound fields in the stationary fluid. Simple flowmeter designs which approach the ideal of complete immunity to velocity distribution are described.     

Ultrasonic cross-correlation flowmeters

The majority of ultrasonic flowmeters ultilize the Doppler principle so that the measurement depends upon the value of the velocity of sound in the fluid. Variations of the sound velocity can, therefore, introduce measurement errors. This paper describes an ultrasonic method of measuring the flow of liquids and gases using cross-correlation techniques. There is no restriction to the flow and the measurement accuracy is in principle independent of the velocity of sound in the fluid.     

超声波流量计测量流体声速的实验方法

为获取液体介质的声速值,设计了一种测定流体声速的实验方法,该方法利用时差式超声波流量计和标准流量校验设备同时对封闭管道中的液体进行流速测量,分别得到流速的测量值和真实值,从而计算出超声波流量计的仪表系数,并以此导出了一定条件下液体介质的声速值随仪表系数的变化关系式.利用该方法测量给出了0.17 MPa下四氧化二氮(N₂O₄)在7.6-19.4 ℃、偏二甲肼((CH₃)₂NNH₂)在6.5-25.2 ℃范围内的流体声速值,并为其他液体介质的声速测量提供了借鉴. 关键词： 超声波流量计 声速 仪表系数 温度     

Advances in ultrasonic production units for enhanced oil recovery in China

With the development of oil recovery technology, ultrasonic technology has been involved in oil production and oilfield development. The mechanism of ultrasonic wave plugging in near well is different from the conventional oil recovery technology. Ultrasonic oil production technique is an effective method to enhance oil production with low cost, good applicability, and no environmental pollution. The core part of ultrasonic oil production equipment for Enhanced Oil Recovery is a high-power ultrasonic transducer. The continuous high-power ultrasound is used to treat the reservoir, which changes the pore structure, the physical property and the state of the fluid, thus improving the permeability and flows conditions of the reservoir, and increasing the oil yield and oil recovery. Ultrasonic oil recovery equipment includes the generation of high-power ultrasonic signals, long-distance transmission and the conversion of electrical energy to acoustic energy. In this paper, state-of-the-art on the development of ultrasonic oil production devices for Enhanced Oil Recovery in China is introduced. The purpose of this paper is to provide a reference for the development of high-power ultrasonic oil extraction equipment and its promotion in tertiary oil recovery technology.     

Numerical simulation of transit-time ultrasonic flowmeters: uncertainties due to flow profile and fluid turbulence

Flowmeter measurement using the ultrasonic transit-time method is based on the apparent difference of the sound velocity in the flow direction and in the opposite direction. This method gives a flow velocity averaged along a particular acoustical path. To convert this path velocity to a velocity averaged over the entire cross-section of the flowing medium, the knowledge of the flow velocity profile is essential. However, the acoustical paths joining the two transducers are supposed to be straight and fluid turbulence phenomena are neglected. In this paper, we describe a numerical procedure to estimate the uncertainties due to these approximations in the case of fully developed turbulence. The ultrasonic propagation is modelled in 2-D moving inhomogeneous media via a ray tracing algorithm. Influence of mean profiles of temperature and velocity is studied on simple examples. Fluid temperature fluctuations and fluid velocity turbulence are considered in the stochastic framework to obtain average uncertainties on the measurements of the liquid flow rate.     

Investigation of Bubbly Flow by Ultrasonic Tomography

Computerized tomography (CT) means reconstruction of pictures from projections taken at different angles. This method is well known in fields such as medical diagnostics and nondestructive testing. The application of CT to gas/liquid flow measurement results in a non-intrusive method for measuring the spatial distribution of the gas phase in a cross-section of the flow. In our application the projection data are obtained from measurement of the extinction along a set of ultrasonic rays in this cross-section, using piezo-ceramic ultrasonic transducers. The transducers are arranged in a circular sensor array which is directly integrated in the pipe wall of the flow; instead of mechanical rotation, the sensors are sequentially switched.     

Power ultrasound and its applications: A state-of-the-art review

Ultrasonic processing has attracted increasing attention by people because ultrasonic technology may represent a flexible ‘green’ alternative for energy efficient processes. The major challenges for the power ultrasound application in real situations are the design and development of specific power ultrasonic systems for large-scale operations. Thus, new families of power ultrasonic transducers have been developed in recent years to meet actual needs, and this contributes to the implementation of power ultrasound of application in many fields such as chemical industry, food industry and manufacturing. This paper presents the current state of ultrasonic transducers of magnetostrictiv type and piezoelectric type as well as applications of power ultrasound in various industrial fields including chemical reactions, drying/dehydration, welding, extraction, heat transfer enhancement, de-ice, enhanced oil recovery, droplet atomization, cleaning and fine particle removal. The review paper helps to understand the current development of power ultrasonic technology and its applications in various situations, and induce extended applications of power ultrasound to more and more fields.     

Electrical coupling effects in an ultrasonic transducer array

Ultrasonic imaging devices often use transducer arrays for sampling the incoming acoustic field and converting it into electrical signals. After some convenient processing (amplification, dephasing, summing, etc), the electrical signals are used to modulate the brightness of a cathode ray tube (crt) monitor on which the ultrasonic image becomes visible. The quality of the imaging apparatus depends critically on the transducer array design and implementation.

Each individual transducer would, ideally, produce an electrical signal related exclusively to the ultrasonic field arriving at its surface; the reciprocal would also be true for transmission. In all practical cases, however, numerous effects lead to some coupling between nearby transducers, especially for very narrow transducers. The subsequent perturbations may be described as a narrowing of the radiation (or reception) pattern of the individual transducers, with respect to the theoretical predictions. To understand the mechanism for these couplings and to minimize them, their possible origins have been systematically studied. One of the most important sources of coupling is electrical leakage, which is reported here. Since no simple analytical calculation can be performed, diagrams have been established that enable evaluation of the electrical coupling against the dimensional characteristics of the array. Some means for reducing this coupling are suggested and comparative experimental results are given.     

多分量超声波换能器及其应用

为提高超声无损检测的精度的可靠性，本文研究了几种多分量超声波换能器，即二分量换能器和三分量换能器，分析和探讨了它们在声发射检测以及超声法应力测试中的应用。     

Determination of sound speed in biological tissues based on frequency analysis of pulse response.

The sound speed in biological tissues provides important diagnostic and treatment planning information. Conventional methods of sound-speed determination generally require that transducers make physical contact with specimens in order to measure thickness and travel time in the time domain. The physical contact may cause deformation and affect blood flow and the measurement of travel time in the time domain may be sensitive to waveform distortion due to tissue inhomogeneity and surface roughness. A method for determination of the sound speed is proposed in which the sound travel time in the sample and the difference in total travel time from the transducer to the rigid reflector due to the presence of the sample are estimated in the frequency domain and which does not require physical contact of ultrasonic probes to living or freshly excised tissue specimens. Ultrasonic speed measurements in silicone rubber and acrylic resin specimens verified the method validity. The standard deviation of the measurements over a 10- x 10-mm area is less than 4 m/s. Sound-speed distribution measurements of porcine muscle are in agreement with previously published results.     

光弹法测量超声换能器声场

超声换能器声场的测试对于超声检测具有基础性作用,而传统的超声换能器声场测试方法具有一些局限性。本文介绍了搭建的动态激光光弹实验平台,并利用动态光弹法测量了纵波换能器和横波换能器辐射声场的特征,由瞬态声场图像获得了传声介质的声波速度及超声换能器的中心频率;由稳态声场图像获得了声场的近场长度、指向性和扩散角等参数;分析了光弹实验系统和测量方法可能引起测量误差。本文结果表明动态光弹法是一种有效的定量测量超声换能器声场的方法。     

利用互易性电路设计降低超声流量测量的零点误差和温度漂移

超声流量测量系统中,严重影响时间差检测的准确度和稳定性的“零点误差”和“温度漂移”问题可以通过对测量系统互易性的改善加以改进。本文通过对测量系统等效电路模型的分析阐述了系统互易的成立条件,并提出了一种通过对激励和接收电路等效阻抗进行对称性设计提高测量系统互易性的测量电路。这一电路设计易于在仪表中实现,其中换能器的负载阻抗能够根据需要灵活设定。在实际测量管道上进行的实验证明,使用这样的电路设计进行流量测量,能够大幅降低零点误差并抑制温度漂移,使得流量测量结果更加准确稳定。