On the risk-based steam generator lifetime optimisation

A probabilistic fracture mechanics model is employed to estimate the failure probability of axially cracked steam generator tubes. The model estimates the failure probability from the random changes of the influencing parameters such as tube and crack geometry, material properties and non-destructive examination results, reliability and sizing accuracy and stable crack propagation. The performance of the model is illustrated by a numerical example. A steam generator tubing severely affected by the stress corrosion cracking is studied during most unfavourable accidental conditions. Two different plugging approaches are analyzed and the quality is compared, showing the superior performance of crack length oriented approach over tube wall thickness reduction both in terms of SG failure probability and extent of plugging. Thus, apart from setting the acceptable SG failure probability, all elements for the risk-based SG lifetime optimisation are provided on the example of stress corrosion cracking in the tube expansion transition zone.     

核电690合金传热管微动疲劳试验及损伤机理分析

核电蒸汽发生器传热管在微幅磨损与交变载荷的作用下形成微动疲劳,导致其表面裂纹萌生和扩展乃至破裂,从而影响反应堆的安全. 为研究径向载荷以及轴向交变应力对690合金管微动疲劳寿命的影响规律,开展690合金管管材的微动疲劳试验,获得690合金管管材的微动疲劳寿命曲线,并与相关研究数据进行对比分析,以便探讨材料在微动疲劳下的寿命模型. 对不同载荷下的690合金管试样的磨痕表面进行三维形貌和扫描电镜观测,分析磨损表面的损伤机理;对不同载荷下的690合金管试样断口的宏观与微观形貌进行表征,分析裂纹萌生、起裂过程及其失效机理. 结果表明690合金管与403不锈钢(SS)抗振条间的磨损机理为剥层及磨粒磨损;690合金管在径向载荷作用下于微动磨损处产生裂纹源,裂纹在轴向交变应力的作用下不断向内部扩展,最终导致断裂;其断裂形式为解理疲劳断裂.      

加工后的双壁金属换热管在升温-降温过程中受到的力学影响

铅冷钠冷快堆核电设备中的蒸汽发生器,有着在液态金属和水之间进行热交换的作用,其换热部分由排列的换热管组成。贴合式的双壁管是一种具有高换热效率及抵抗管裂纹扩展的管材,适合于这种应用环境。这种管材的内外管间存在残余压力,这是内外管紧贴的标志。然而在经历升至高温又降温的过程后,内外管间残余压力有可能消失引起两管脱开。为了得知温度对贴合式双壁金属管的具体影响,本文设计了一种拉伸法来制备双壁管,并同时采用有限元数值模拟管的加工制备过程并得到了内外管间的残余应力,再对加温后降温的过程进行模拟,分析换热管残余应力和应变状态进行了分析的变化,并通过初步试验来进行验证。通过研究,结果表明温度变化引起的塑性变形是管间残余压力变化的主要原因。通过控制管的加工过程来控制管材加工程度的方法,可望应对温度变化对管稳定性的影响。     

Photoelastic determination of stresses in the tube plate of a 70-mw steam generator

This article describes the examination, by three-dimensional photoelasticity, of the tube plate of a sodium steam generator. The tube plate is flat on the side of the tube bundle (121 tubes) and spherical (concave) on the other side. The photoelastic model was made by precision casting, there being no glued joints at the points which are important from the point of view of stresses, such as the tube-tube plate junctions. Both the stress distribution along important sections and the stress concentrations in different types of tube-tube plate junctions due to the internal pressure were determined. The investigation described in this article was carried out in the framework of the Association—Euratom TNO/RCN on Fast Reactors, on behalf of the TNO—Neratoom Sodium Technology Project.     

激光冲击修复后压力容器钢Q345R耐腐蚀及抗疲劳性能研究

对激光冲击强化后的压力容器材料Q345R钢的耐腐蚀性能和抗疲劳性能进行研究。通过电化学实验,并结合扫描电子显微镜分析其耐腐蚀性。结果显示,有吸收层保护和无吸收层保护激光冲击后,相较于原试样,耐腐蚀性分别提升5.8倍和2.6倍;微观实验结果表明经过激光冲击后腐蚀试样表面裂纹明显少于未处理试样。但随着冲击次数增加,耐腐蚀性有所下降。疲劳试验结果显示,相同应力条件下,腐蚀1和2 h的疲劳寿命相较于原试样降低36.8%和56.4%,经过一次或三次激光冲击后试件的疲劳寿命分别提升43.8%和198.2%,经XRD检测,激光冲击能在表面形成一定深度的残余压应力层并抑制裂纹扩展。     

Two-phase flow pattern identification in a tube bundle based on void fraction and pressure measurements,with emphasis on churn flow

Two-phase flow are frequently encountered in the industry. In particular, in steam generators of nuclear plants, water is heated so that at the top of the generator an important fraction of water flows as vapor. In this upper part, a rising co-current two phase flow transverse to the tube bundle takes place. Fluids exert significant forces on the tubes in this area which highly depend on the two-phase flow pattern. Thus, as a prerequisite, it is essential to gather information on the flow conditions associated with the different two-phase flow patterns, which can be bubbly, intermittent, or annular. Then we must analyze the potentially dangerous flow patterns. This paper presents an experimental campaign aimed at characterizing those flow patterns for a rising co-current transverse flow in a tube bundle representative of the geometry in a steam generator. A new methodology based on the understanding of key contributions to vertical two-phase flow pattern maps in tube bundles is proposed that leads to a more complete flow pattern map. Finally, the paper focuses on the churn flow, which is the flow pattern for which significant pressure fluctuations occur. For this pattern, important damages could be expected on the tubes of a steam generator. Different kinds of pressure fluctuations are observed at different frequencies depending on the flow rates and the location in the test section.     

汽轮机轮盘热处理残余应力分析

百万核电汽轮机红套低压转子工作环境的蒸汽参数较低,各级轮盘均处于湿度较大的工作区域,易产生应力腐蚀,引起裂纹萌生和扩展．为提高轮盘的抗腐蚀能力,降低工作应力是一个有效的方法．通过热处理方法,在轮盘表面形成预压应力以抵消部分旋转拉应力是可行的方法,而产生适当深度和大小的预压应力则需对热处理过程进行谨慎的设计．本文以汽轮机轮盘为研究对象,建立轴对称有限元模型,通过对ABAQUS软件的二次开发,实现对轮盘热处理过程的温度场及应力场进行数值模拟．计算综合考虑了非线性的材料热物性参数、力学性能参数、表面换热系数及不同材料组织转变的相变潜热、热物性参数和力学参数,通过对不同热处理方法得到的残余应力场的比较,获得了较合理的水冷方式,为热处理工艺确定提供参考．     

在横向气流激励下螺旋管管阵流体力系数的实验测定

螺旋管式蒸汽发生器由于其结构紧凑，换热性能好，体积小优点，在快堆和高温气冷堆中被广泛采用。广西根据２００ＭＷ高温气冷堆蒸汽发生器的结构参数建立了实验模型，并对在横向气流激励下管阵的流弹不稳定性进行了实验研究。试验测量了螺旋管管阵在横向气流冲刷下的流体力系数，这一实验结果将有助于进一步了解螺旋管管阵在横向气流激励下的振动特性。     

锈胀开裂后变形钢筋与混凝土粘结性能实验研究

为研究锈胀开裂对变形钢筋与混凝土间粘结性能的影响,开展了电化学快速锈蚀内贴应变片钢筋混凝土试件的拔出实验,得到了不同位置处钢筋的应变,进而推导了钢筋与混凝土不同位置处的粘结应力,分析了锈胀裂缝宽度对钢筋与混凝土间不同位置处粘结应力的影响。实验研究表明:粘结试件中的钢筋应变对锈胀裂缝宽度的敏感性大;对于锈胀裂缝较小的试件,其粘结应力峰值接近加载端,而对于锈胀裂缝较大的试件,粘结应力峰值更靠近自由端。     

不同尺寸砂岩动态力学性质和应力平衡性的试验研究

采用大直径分离式霍普金森压杆系统获得的不同尺寸试样的实验冲击动态力学参数有差异,因此在直径100 mm压杆上进行了3种直径（50、75和100 mm）和5种长径比（0.4、0.5、0.6、0.8和1.0）的砂岩试样冲击试验,分析了不同尺寸试样应力-应变曲线和应变率曲线随尺寸的变化,提出了用于比较波形对齐重合度的波形叠加系数,并与应力平衡因子共同构建了动态应力平衡性研究体系,由此确定大直径霍普金森压杆试验的试样建议尺寸。同时,利用高速摄影机监测试样的动态破坏状况。结果表明:当长径比相同时,直径75与100 mm岩石试样的动态抗压强度测试值相近,直径50 mm试样具有更明显的长度效应;随着试样直径的增大,应变率曲线从单峰变为双峰;小尺寸试样更易发生轴向劈裂破坏,大尺寸试样受内部应力波叠加影响产生了较大的拉应力,易发生层裂拉伸和轴向劈裂的复合型破坏;对直径75 mm且长径比0.3~0.4的试样,波形对齐后重合度较高,在起始破坏前拥有充足的应力平衡时间,应变率加载效果较好。获得了砂岩试样冲击压缩试验的尺寸效应,可为大直径岩石试样的尺寸选择提供参考。     

Heat transfer in bubble layers at high pressures

An original experimental investigation of heat transfer with steam condensation on a surface of a horizontal cooled tube immersed in a bubbling layer was carried out. A copper test section 16 mm in diameter and 285 mm in length was placed in a bubbling column 295 mm in diameter. Experiments were made under a pressure of 0.72-3.8 MPa with volume steam content 0-0.18, steam superficial velocities 0-0.18 m/s, and liquid-wall temperature difference 38–106 K. The heat transfer process in a bubbling layer under high pressures is shown to be of considerably intensity; with moderate values of steam content heat transfer coefficients reach 10–12 kW/(m²·K). The use of the known correlations assumed for the case of air bubbling under atmospheric pressure results in systematically underestimating heat transfer by 30–80%. Data were obtained on heat transfer with film condensation of steam and natural convection of subcooled water at high temperature differences outside the range investigated earlier. Experimental data table is appended.     

航空铝合金力学与电化学耦合点蚀损伤模型研究

点蚀是航空铝合金材料在服役环境下常见的损伤形式，点蚀损伤会导致材料性能的下降, 严重地威胁着结构的承载能力。作为承力构件，航空铝合金不仅承受环境腐蚀的作用，还承受应力作用。论文根据点蚀基本原理，引入细观损伤变量孔隙率，考虑力学化学效应，建立了点蚀损伤弹性模量计算模型。使用2219铝合金，进行加速腐蚀试验和单向拉伸试验，利用显微扫描技术研究了点蚀坑深度随时间和载荷的变化，并对腐蚀后试验件的损伤宏观形貌进行观察分析。根据拉伸实验结果，对模型的正确性进行验证。模型计算与实验结果的对比证明了本文方法的可行性与正确性。     

Q420钢管大气腐蚀后的抗侧撞性能

为研究大气腐蚀对Q420钢管构件服役期内耐撞性的影响,提出了计及腐蚀损伤的材料模型。引入损伤因子（ω）修正Voce模型,推导随腐蚀程度变化的低合金钢材本构方程,并通过加速腐蚀试验结果回归相应参数。利用ABAQUS软件定义构件材料特性,建立起受腐蚀的Q420钢管仿真模型,采用显式动力算法分析多种初始状态下,撞击体与不同腐蚀程度钢管的冲击响应规律。开展预腐蚀Q420钢管的落锤试验,将试验结果与数值计算结果进行对比,验证所建模型的合理性。结果表明:大气腐蚀导致材料名义强度降低,对Q420钢管抗撞击能力影响显著;随着腐蚀程度增加,冲击力峰值减小,撞击时间和深度增加;Q420钢管受腐蚀后抗冲击刚度减小,构件整体变形耗能增加,表明大气腐蚀使其抗冲击性能下降;同等动能增量下,增大撞击体初速度比增加初始质量获得的冲击力峰值增幅更大,而所得到的接触时间增幅更小。     

Erratum to: Rock Dynamic Fracture Toughness Tested with Holed-Cracked Flattened Brazilian Discs Diametrically Impacted by SHPB and its Size Effect

Dynamic fracture initiation toughness of marble was tested using two types of the holed-cracked flattened Brazilian disc (HCFBD) specimens, which were diametrically impacted at the flat end of the disc by the split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) of 100 mm diameter. One type of the discs is geometrically similar with different outside diameter of 42 mm, 80 mm, 122 mm and 155 mm respectively, and with crack length being half the diameter; another type of the discs has identical 80 mm diameter and different crack length. Issues associated with determination of the stress wave loading by the SHPB system and the crack initiation time in the disc specimen were resolved using strain gage technique. The stress waves recorded on the bars and the disc failure patterns are shown and explained. The tested dynamic fracture toughness increases obviously with increasing diameter for the geometrically similar HCFBD specimens. It changes moderately for the one-size specimens of identical diameter and different crack length. The size effect of rock dynamic fracture toughness is mainly caused by the fracture process zone length l and fracture incubation time τ, the latter being an additional influencing factor for the dynamic loading as compared with the counterpart static situation. Hence a method is proposed to determine a unique value for the dynamic fracture initiation toughness, the approach takes average of the local distribution and time history for dynamic stress intensity factor in the spatial-temporal domain, which is defined by l and τ jointly. In this way the dynamic size effect is minimized.     

取代率对钢管再生混凝土短柱轴压性能退化的影响分析

为了揭示再生粗骨料含量对钢管再生混凝土短柱轴压性能退化的影响,以再生粗骨料取代率级差10%作为主要变化参数,分别进行了22组圆钢管试件(以直径90mm和110mm为次要变化参数)和11组方钢管试件的轴心受压试验,从组合轴压刚度退化、损伤以及耗能的角度分析了再生粗骨料取代率对其性能衰减的影响程度。研究结果表明:钢管再生混凝土短柱在非弹性阶段的退化特性大致表现为负指数函数的形式;再生粗骨料取代率较高时的轴压损伤累积比取代率较小的试件快;对于含钢率低、套箍系数小的圆钢管试件,其全过程耗能因子降低较快且变得较小;再生粗骨料取代率超过50%后,钢管再生混凝土的轴压终值耗能因子均随取代率的增加而降低。     

Rock Dynamic Fracture Toughness Tested with Holed-Cracked Flattened Brazilian Discs Diametrically Impacted by SHPB and its Size Effect

Dynamic fracture initiation toughness of marble was tested using two types of the holed-cracked flattened Brazilian disc (HCFBD) specimens, which were diametrically impacted at the flat end of the disc by the split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) of 100 mm diameter. One type of the discs is geometrically similar with different outside diameter of 42 mm, 80 mm, 122 mm and 155 mm respectively, and with crack length being half the diameter; another type of the discs has identical 80 mm diameter and different crack length. Issues associated with determination of the stress wave loading by the SHPB system and the crack initiation time in the disc specimen were resolved using strain gage technique. The stress waves recorded on the bars and the disc failure patterns are shown and explained. The tested dynamic fracture toughness increases obviously with increasing diameter for the geometrically similar HCFBD specimens. It changes moderately for the one-size specimens of identical diameter and different crack length. The size effect of rock dynamic fracture toughness is mainly caused by the fracture process zone length l and fracture incubation time τ, the latter being an additional influencing factor for the dynamic loading as compared with the counterpart static situation. Hence a method is proposed to determine a unique value for the dynamic fracture initiation toughness, the approach takes average of the local distribution and time history for dynamic stress intensity factor in the spatial-temporal domain, which is defined by l and τ jointly. In this way the dynamic size effect is minimized.     

Heat transfer simulation in a helically coiled tube steam generator

A symmetric helically coiled tube steam generator that operates by methane has been simulated analytically and numerically. In the analytical method, the furnace has been divided into five zones. The numerical method computes the total heat absorbed in the furnace, while the existing analytical methods compute only the radiation heat transfer. In addition, according to the numerical results, a correlation is proposed for the Nusselt number in the furnace.     

Numerical investigation of helical coil tube bundle in turbulent cross flow using large eddy simulation

A realistic five-layered helical coil tube bundle in turbulent cross flow is numerically investigated using large eddy simulation (LES). The geometry of the helical coil tube bundle, which is a 1/45 sector of a helical coil steam generator design for an advanced small modular reactor, has three counterclockwise helical layers and two clockwise helical layers stacked in alternating fashion in the radial direction. A Reynolds number of 21,800 is considered based on the mean gap velocity, diameter of the coil tube, and kinematic viscosity of the working fluid. The WALE sub-grid scale model is employed for LES to resolve scale smaller than the grid size. Additionally, LES for an ideal five-layered coil bundle model without a helical geometry is utilized to generate comparison data. Instantaneous flow fields are explored by analyzing velocity magnitude, vorticity, static pressure, and vortical structures. The detachments of vortical structures from the coil tube surface are observed by visualizing vortical structures and wall shear stress distributions simultaneously. Various turbulent statistics at multiple monitoring locations are presented with an emphasis on feature difference between realistic and ideal coil bundle models. The results of spectral analyses, including the power spectral density and continuous wavelet transform analyses, are addressed from the perspective of flow-induced vibration. The key feature of this paper is the discussion of three-dimensional effects based on the helical geometry of a coil bundle.     

Stress and Strain Analysis of Pipelines with Localized Metal Loss

This paper presents the analysis of stress and strain data acquired with the finite element method and with tests that used post-yielding strain gages bonded onto the external surface of pipes that suffered thickness metal loss and that had been loaded with internal pressure. These metal loss areas were produced by three different processes: actual internal corrosion, careful machining of external patches by spark-erosion, and milling of internal or external patches to simulate limited or extensive strip corrosion defects with depths up to 70% of the pipe’s thickness. Results show that: (1) the extensive longitudinal internal or external defect areas behave as extensive strips with a high degree of freedom to deform elastically and plastically in the circumferential and thickness directions, and (2) large restraints are offered to the longitudinal strains by the non-corroded thick walls parallel to the strip. Using the above experimental observation, a simple mathematical model was developed to predict the burst pressure of pipes with longitudinal extensive and reasonably constant depths of metal loss. This model employed thin-pipe-strength-of-material equations associated to a bulging correction factor, the material’s uniaxial ultimate strength and the von Mises criterion. The onset of plastic collapse predicted by the simple model was successfully compared with results determined from actual hydrostatic tests that were carried out with full scale pipe specimens and from finite element results generated by the use of a commercial program. The developed model was also helpful in showing that the yield and burst behaviors of new or corroded pipeline specimens under laboratory test conditions can be directly compared and extended to the yield and burst behaviors of buried pipeline in field operation.     

Fluidelastic instability study in a rotated triangular tube array subject to two-phase cross-flow. Part I: Fluid force measurements and time delay extraction

Fluidelastic instability is a key issue in steam generator tube bundles subjected to cross-flow. The extension to two-phase flow of the existing theoretical models, developed and tested mostly for single phase flow, is investigated in this paper. The time delay is one of the key parameter for modeling fluidelastic instability, especially the damping controlled mechanism. The direct measurement of the time delay between the tube motion and the fluid force faces certain difficulties in two-phase flow since the high turbulence due to the interaction of the two components of the flow may increase the randomness of the measured force. To overcome this difficulty, an innovative method for extracting the time delay inherent to the quasi-steady model for fluidelastic instability is proposed in this study.Firstly, experimental measurements of unsteady and quasi-static fluid forces (in the lift direction) acting on a tube subjected to air–water two-phase flow were conducted. The unsteady fluid forces were measured by exciting the tube using a linear motor. These forces were measured for a wide range of void fractions, flow velocities and excitation frequencies. The experimental results showed that the unsteady fluid forces could be represented as single valued function of the reduced flow velocity. It was also found that for a given frequency, the unsteady fluid force phase was weakly dependent on the void fraction for the range of flow velocities considered.The time delay was determined by equating the unsteady fluid forces with the quasi-steady forces. The results given by this innovative method of measuring the time delay in two-phase flow were consistent with theoretical expectations. The time delay could be expressed as a linear function of the convection time and the time delay parameter was determined for void fractions ranging from 60% to 90%.