Fabrication of a random convex-lens-shaped microstructure using a laser ablation

A convex-lens-shaped microstructure with a diameter of 50 μm on a metallic mold substrate was fabricated in this paper. A laser ablation process, in which the laser beam was focused and irradiated on the metallic mold substrate in order to remove a part of the substrate, was used for that. The convex-lens-shaped microstructure has not been reported in any studies of microstructure using the laser ablation process. It was proposed that the unbalanced ablation and re-adherence of the melted particles was the processing mechanism of the convex lens shape. The convex-lens-shaped microstructure fabricated in this study is smaller than the focused spot. It was expected that the same convex-lens-shaped microstructure can be fabricated even if the focused spot size is increased, so long as the fluence of the laser can be maintained. Therefore, the method proposed in this paper will improve the low processing speed, which has been the problem of a laser ablation process. The fabricated convex-lens-shaped microstructure on the metallic substrate can be used as the mold for the micro lens.     

激光烧蚀高纯Zn形成的微米金属球体对后续脉冲激光的耦合增强效应

脉冲激光束在低真空(约2 Pa)环境下聚焦到高纯Zn靶表面, 烧蚀区域不仅有中心深孔的宏观损伤, 而且还发现大量微米量级的类似足球形状的金属Zn球体结构附着生长在孔洞内侧表面. 实验过程中采用等离子体光谱诊断技术研究宏观和微观损伤对后续脉冲激光的影响程度. 与聚焦于金属Zn平滑表面相比, 宏观损伤可以使后续激光诱导的Zn原子334.5 nm谱线强度提高10.3%, 在此基础上大量Zn微米球体附着在内表面可以使谱线强度再提高34.3%. 因此, 推断这些金属Zn微球表面镶嵌着光洁的纳米量级六边形和五边形小平面, 可以对后续脉冲激光产生镜面反射, 使得激光能量汇聚并耦合增强, 提高烧蚀效率. 实验结果还表明, 这些微米球体的数目随着激光脉冲次数的增加而增多, 使得后续激光能够诱导产生更为致密高温的等离子体. 研究结果有望为激光-金属微孔技术提供新思路. 关键词： 脉冲激光烧蚀 微纳米结构 激光诱导等离子体     

Femtosecond pulsed laser ablation with spatial filtering

With the rise in demand for miniaturized features with better acute edge acuity and negligible thermal damage zone, one of the key vital areas lies in the refinement of the quality of the laser beam itself. Spatial filter is routinely used in optical micromachining systems to smoothen the Gaussian profile of the machining spot in order to obtain a feature of the desired quality. However, its profile smoothening effect has never been investigated for femtosecond pulsed laser micromachining process since the extremely high peak power of femtosecond pulses will cause damage on the filtering aperture of spatial filter. During the development of an acousto-optical micromachining system using femtosecond pulses, we found that if the damage of the filtering aperture can be circumvented, spatial filter can improve the machining quality of femtosecond pulse ablation, especially when ablation is conducted at low-fluency range (just above the ablation threshold fluency). In this paper, we investigate and demonstrate both the improvement and potential that beam refinement can bring about. In our experiment, a series of test patterns were ablated with a 400 nm second-harmonic Ti:Sapphire femtosecond laser of 150 fs duration at varying pulse energy ranging from 31 to 39 nJ. The specimen used in the experiment is a platinum- (Pt) sputtered coating of 100 nm thickness on a quartz substrate. The results show a significant improvement in the constancy of the shape as well as the size of ablated feature, revealing an improved beam profile and beam energy distribution due to spatial filtering.     

Determination of residual stresses within plasma spray coating using Moiré interferometry method

In this paper, residual stresses of the Ni-Cr-B-Si coatings prepared by supersonic plasma spray processing were measured by moiré interferometry and X-ray diffraction method. Moiré interferometry method was used in measuring the distribution of residual stresses of the Ni-Cr-B-Si coatings alongside the specimen thickness direction, then the distribution of residual stresses both in the substrate and the coating was also analyzed. Experimental results showed that residual stresses in the coating and the substrate are tensile and compressive separately; residual stresses of the coating are diminished with the increase of the distance from the coating surface and almost zero at the coating-substrate interface; the maximum of compressive residual stresses of the substrate are present to the vicinity of the coating-substrate interface. It could be concluded that residual stresses in the specimen would result from the dismatch of thermophysical properties between the coating and substrate during the spray process, and the distribution of residual stresses of the substrate would be influenced by the sandblasting prior to spraying.     

Numerical simulation of the ablation of thin molybdenum films under laser irradiation

Laser irradiation of a molybdenum film on a quartz substrate is numerically studied. The simulated results prove the experimental effect lying in a threefold decrease in the size of the ablation region in comparison with the focal spot. The numerical experiment proves the hypothesis on the two-stage ablation of metal film with the primary formation of oxide phase. It is demonstrated that oxidation leads to a selective decrease in the thermal resistance of the film along the vertical direction, so that the anisotropic character of the ablation is enhanced.     

Computational investigation into the mechanisms of UV ablation of poly(methyl methacrylate)

Molecular dynamics simulations with an embedded Monte Carlo based reaction scheme were used to study UV ablation of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) at 157 nm. We discuss the onset of ablation, the formation and distribution of products in the plume and stress relaxation of the polymer matrix. Laser induced heating and bond-breaks are considered as ablation pathways. We show here that depending on the nature of energy deposition the evolution of ablation plume and yield composition can be quite different. If all of photon energy is converted to heat it can set off ablation via mechanical failure of the material in the heated region. Alternatively, if the photon energy goes towards breaking bonds first, it initiates chemical reactions, polymer unzipping and formation of gaseous products inside the substrate. The ejection of these molecules has a hollowing out effect on the substrate which can lead to ejection of larger chunks. No excessive pressure buildup due to creation of gaseous molecules or entrainment of larger polymer chunks is observed in this case.     

Peeling stress analysis for an inhomogeneous high-Tc superconductor with a discontinuous interface at the substrate

This paper presents an analysis of a superconductor–substrate system to calculate the peeling stress of a high temperature superconductor (HTS) when the temperature decreases from ambient to operating conditions (cryogenic temperatures). Firstly, the values for the material properties of the inhomogeneous high temperature superconductor (HTS) were obtained by fitting a second order polynomial to the experimental data. It is assumed that the material properties of the inhomogeneous HTS vary with varying height coordinate and temperature. Then, through the proposed graded finite element method, the coupled thermo-mechanical equations were solved numerically. The numerical results show that the thermal stress generated in the inhomogeneous HTS is larger on a SiTiO₃ substrate than on a MgO substrate. The maximum thermal stresses, i.e., the peeling stresses, occur near the bottom corner of the inhomogeneous HTS and may induce fracture behavior at the bi-material interface. The inhomogeneous HTS cools at a slower pace than the homogeneous HTS from the room temperature to the operating temperature. It is also shown that the magnitude of the peeling stress for a homogeneous HTS is larger than that for an inhomogeneous HTS. It is intended that the model presented here be useful to researchers who are interested in the mechanical properties of an inhomogeneous HTS.     

Finite element analysis of stress and strain distributions in InAs/GaAs quantum dots

In this paper, we perform systematic calculations of the stress and strain distributions in InAs/GaAs truncated pyramidal quantum dots (QDs) with different wetting layer (WL) thickness, using the finite element method (FEM). The stresses and strains are concentrated at the boundaries of the WL and QDs, are reduced gradually from the boundaries to the interior, and tend to a uniform state for the positions away from the boundaries. The maximal strain energy density occurs at the vicinity of the interface between the WL and the substrate. The stresses, strains and released strain energy are reduced gradually with increasing WL thickness. The above results show that a critical WL thickness may exist, and the stress and strain distributions can make the growth of QDs a growth of strained three-dimensional island when the WL thickness is above the critical value, and FEM can be applied to investigate such nanosystems, QDs, and the relevant results are supported by the experiments.     

A two-step nanosecond laser surface texturing process with smooth surface finish

Surface texturing (for example, producing micro dimples on the surface) of mechanical parts has a great potential to improve the surface tribological properties. Surface texturing through nanosecond laser ablation has many associated advantages and hence has drawn lots of attentions. However, the produced micro dimple bottom (if through laser spot scanning) is often very rough, which may harm the surface tribological properties. In this paper, a two-step laser surface texturing process is proposed and studied, where a relatively high-fluence laser ablation step (which is to create dimples) is followed by a low-fluence laser-induced melting, melted material flow and re-solidification step (which is to smooth the ablated dimple bottom surface). The study shows that the two-step laser surface texturing process can produce dimples with very smooth bottom surfaces. The effects of laser pulse duration and scan speed in Step 2 on the dimple bottom surface morphology and roughness have also been investigated, and some very interesting physical phenomena have been found, which have been rarely reported before in literature. Some hypothesized explanations are given for the observed effects, which require future work to completely understand their underlying mechanisms.     

Magnetic orientational phase transition in a biaxially strained single crystal Ho0.6Y2.4Fe5O12

The evolution of the domain structure of a Ho_0.6Y_2.4Fe₅O₁₂ single crystal under the action of biaxial mechanical stresses was investigated using the magneto-optical method. The investigations were performed on a specimen in the form of a plane-parallel plate that was cut parallel to the (110) crystallographic plane. The mechanical stresses in the specimen were induced by the compressive forces acting on it and oriented in the (110) plane along the directions ??100?? and ??110??. It was found that, under stresses induced in the specimen, the reorientation of the easy magnetization axis occurs through a first-order phase transition. The obtained results were discussed in terms of the thermodynamic theory of magnetic orientational phase transitions.     

Analysis of near weld stress field based on strain measurement and physical mesomechanics

Stresses induced by welding are analyzed from the viewpoint of material deformation behavior. Strain gages are used to measure the residual stresses, and electronic speckle-pattern interferometry is used to analyze the response of the welded work to external force. A tensile load is applied to a butt-welded, thin-plate steel specimen, and the resultant strain field is analyzed with the electronic speckle-pattern interferometry. Comparison is made with the case of a nonwelded specimen of the same material and dimension. The analysis indicates that the residual stress due to welding makes the normal strain due to the external tensile load asymmetric. The asymmetry enhances shear and rotational modes of deformation, generating stress concentration at a point away from the weld where the residual stress is substantially negligible. The observed features are discussed based on physical mesomechanics. Analysis reveals plastic deformation like behavior in the response of the welded specimen to the external force.     

Modification of the amorphous carbon films by the ns-laser irradiation

The effect of a nanosecond laser irradiation of thin (60 and 145 nm) amorphous, diamond-like carbon films deposited on Si substrate by an ion beam deposition (IBD) from pure acetylene and acetylene/hydrogen (1:2) gas mixture was analyzed in this work. The films were irradiated with the infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) radiation of the nanosecond Nd:YAG lasers working at the first (1.16 eV) and the third (3.48 eV) harmonics, using a multi-shot regime. The IR laser irradiation stimulated a minor increase in the fraction of sp² bonds, causing a slight decrease in the hardness of the films and initiated SiC formation. Irradiation with the UV laser caused the formation of carbides and increased hydrogenization of the Si substrate and the fraction of sp² sites. Spalliation and ablation were observed at a higher energy density and with a large number of laser pulses per spot.     

Structure of Be films quenched from the vapour

The crystallite boundary mismatch in crystalline films leads to tensile stresses which act on the substrate. Due to these stresses the substrate is bended. In the dense random packing of atoms in an amorphous film local tensile- and compressive stresses compensate and thus the films seem to be free of stresses with regard to the substrate. From this point of view the measurement of mechanical stresses produced by vapour quenched films can be used for structural analysis. Thus an apparatus is described which allows in situ measurements of mechanical stresses and electrical resistivity of vapour quenched films from 1.2 K to 400 K.An investigation of beryllium films revealed that stresses are produced even by films with a superconducting transition temperature of 9.6 K. From this fact it can be concluded that vapour quenched Be is not completely amorphous. Furthermore, it is shown that inhomogeneous films exist with a two phase double layer structure which is responsible for some peculiarities reported in the literature.     

Elastic-plastic analyses on the residual stresses and curvature of the film/substrate bilayer system

During thermal cycling, the residual stresses are often generated in the film/substrate bilayer due to the material mismatch between the substrate and the film. If the thickness of the film is relatively high, the thermal residual stresses in it may be of different signs. When the film is subjected to elastic-plastic deformation, two plastic zones with different thicknesses may be generated in the film at a significantly high temperature difference. In this paper, a theoretical model which reflects the complete history of thermal residual stresses and curvatures in the elastoplastic film/substrate bilayer system is developed. Solutions are derived to estimate the residual stresses and curvature in the film as functions of temperature difference. The case of Al/Si system is used to illustrate the implementation of this model. Results show that the critical temperature difference at which the second plastic zone near the film surface is generated near the Al film surface is dependent on the film thickness. The strain hardening of the film has an obvious influence on the magnitude of residual stresses within the film at high temperature difference.     

Influence of thermal diffusion on the laser ablation of thin polymer films

The laser ablation of a photosensitive triazene polymer was investigated with a ns XeCl excimer laser over a broad range of thicknesses (10–400 nm). We found that the ablation threshold fluence increased dramatically with decreasing film thickness for films thinner than 50 nm. Ablation on substrates with different thermal properties (sapphire, fused silica, PMMA) was investigated as well, and a clear influence of the substrate material was obtained. A mathematical model combining thermal diffusion and absorption effects was used to explain the experimental data. The model is in good agreement with the experimental data and shows that heat diffusion into the substrate plays a crucial role for the ablation process of very thin films. PACS 52.38.Mf; 44.05.+e; 81.05.Lg     

Stresses and deformation processes in thin films on substrates

The stresses that develop in thin films on substrates can be detrimental to the reliability of thin film electronic devices. In order to design these devices for improved mechanical reliability, an understanding of the origin of these stresses and the controlling deformation processes in thin films is needed. This review begins with a discussion of the basic techniques used for measuring stresses in thin films and for studying the mechanical properties of thin films. The proposed models for the origin of stresses in thin films are then reviewed. Finally, the effects of microstructure and substrate constraint on thin film deformation processes are discussed.     

Influence of the laser-spot diameter on photo-ablation rates

The dependence of the ablation rate of various materials on the laser spot diameter on the sample surface has been investigated. The experiments have been performed with excimer lasers at the wavelengths 193, 248 and 308 nm. Polymers, aluminum oxide ceramics, and glasses have been ablated under vacuum and ambient atmosphere conditions. In general, all materials show a more or less pronounced increase of the ablation rate with decreasing spot diameter in the range of 10–200 μm if pulses with nanosecond pulse durations are applied. For ultrashort pulses (500 fs) at 248 nm this diameter dependence is not observed. The expansion of the ablation plume over areas of different size seems to be the main reason for this effect.     

High‐resolution stress mapping of polycrystalline alumina compression using synchrotron X‐ray diffraction

The ability to achieve uniform stress in uniaxial compression tests of polycrystalline alumina is of significance for the calibration of piezospectroscopic coefficients as well as strength studies in ceramics. In this study high‐energy X‐rays were used to capture powder diffraction profiles over a half‐section of a polycrystalline alumina parallelepiped sample under an increasing uniaxial compressive load. The data were converted to strain and results were used for stress mapping of the sample. Stress maps from the study quantify the higher stresses at the sample–platen contact interface and reveal the evolution of the stress distribution in these specimens with load. For the geometry of the samples used, at the center section of the specimen the overall magnitudes of the compressive stresses were found to be 20% higher compared with the average expected theoretical stress based on the applied load and cross‐sectional area. The observed compressive stresses at the corners of the parallelepiped specimen were 62% higher and shear stresses were observed at the specimen interface to the load mechanism. The effects, seen at the interface, can lead to premature failure at these locations and can affect the accuracy of calibration of spectral peaks with stress as well as compression strength measurements. The results provide important information that can be used to establish guidelines on material and geometry considerations in developing compression tests on high‐strength ceramics.     

Ultrasonic intensity microscopy for imaging of living cells

Ultrasound intensity microscopy was developed for in vivo imaging. This paper describes the preliminary results obtained using 300 MHz ultrasound intensity microscopy for in vitro characterization of cell cultures. The novelty of the approach lies in the fact that it allows remote, non-contact and disturbance-free imaging of cultured synovial cells and the changes in the cells’ properties due to external stimulants such as transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-β1). The intensity imaging method has potential for extracting mechanical cell properties and monitoring the effects of drugs.Ultrasound propagates through a thin specimen such as cultured cells and is reflected at the interface between the specimen and substrate. A two-dimensional distribution of the ultrasonic intensity, which is closely related to the mechanical properties, is visualized to analyze cell organs, such as the nucleus at the central part and the cytoskeleton at the peripheral zone. After stimulation with TGF-β1, the ultrasonic intensity at the actin zone was significantly increased compared with the control.