Recent trends in solid phase spectrometry: 2003-2009. A Review

Around 100 papers published from 2003 to the present are reviewed concerning analytical methods for the direct light measurement of a solid phase in which a target colored or fluorescent analyte is concentrated. Recent attention has been paid to the development of flow injection-solid phase spectrometry as a simple and inexpensive tool for routine analysis of organic compounds or pharmaceuticals. Due to some improvements in flow injection analysis, such as sequential injection and lab-on-a-valve, it is possible not only to reduce the reagent consumption but also to devise fully automatic and miniaturized systems with minimal maintenance needs. This may have the potential of becoming one of the green analytical methods. Flow injection-solid phase spectrometry is expected to be applied to the speciation of trace chemical components (e.g., specific determination of trace metal ions in different existent oxidation states) in real samples in the environment.     

Enrichment of copper and nickel with solid phase extraction using multiwalled carbon nanotubes modified with Schiff bases

The behaviour of some Schiff bases in the presence of metal ions is very selective in complex formation. In this study, new, selective and easily prepared adsorbent materials have been developed. Multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) are quite suitable as supporting material for preparation of new solid phase adsorbents modified with Schiff bases due to their selective nature. Different Schiff bases were designed and synthesised as adsorbent agents for Ni(II) and Cu(II) ions, according to the literature, and MWCNTs were modified with these Schiff bases. The modification of CNTs was performed by adsorption from the alcoholic solution of Schiff base. The measurements of Ni(II) and Cu(II) ions were carried out using ICP-MS. Different parameters such as pH, model and eluent solution flow rates, eluent type, amount of ligand, sample volume and effect of foreign ions, which have an effect upon recovery of analytes, were investigated. The obtained results indicated that enrichment can be done with six modified adsorbent materials for Cu(II) at pH 9 and two modified adsorbent materials for Ni(II) at pH 8. It was concluded that four adsorbent materials were selective only for the enrichment of Cu(II). Merely one modified adsorbent material was noneligible for the enrichment of Cu(II) and Ni(II). The solid phase adsorbents prepared by modification with two of the Schiff bases used in this study showed an enrichment factor of 80 for both metal ions, whereas the solid phase adsorbents prepared by modification with four of the Schiff bases showed an enrichment factor of 40 for Cu(II) ions. The confirmation of the developed method was tested with certified reference materials with satisfactory results.     

Colorimetric detection of uranium(VI) on building surfaces after enrichment by solid phase extraction

A method for detecting and quantifying uranium(VI) levels on building materials that include concrete, Plexiglas, glass and steel surfaces is presented. Uranium(VI) was extracted from building material surfaces using a pH 2.2 buffer rinse and, subsequently complexed by an organic chelating agent, arsenazo III. The application of a uranium-chelating molecule, arsenazo III, allows for concentration enhancement using C₁₈ solid phase extraction and colorimetric detection of the uranium complex using ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy at 654 nm. The method has a detection limit (based on 3σ) of 40 ng/L (5 ng/cm²) and an overall extraction efficiency greater than 80% for each surface type (concrete, Plexiglas, glass, steel). Methods to prevent interference by metal ions commonly found on building materials are discussed.     

Application of factorial design and Doehlert matrix for determination of trace lead in environmental samples by on-line column preconcentration FAAS using silica gel chemically modified with niobium(V) oxide.

In this study a new method for Pb determination in water using solid phase extraction coupled to a flow injection system and flame atomic absorption spectrometry was developed. The sorbent used for Pb preconcentration and extraction was silica gel chemically modified with niobium(V) oxide. Flow and chemical variables of the system were optimized through a multivariate procedure. The factors selected were buffer type, eluent concentration, and sample and eluent flow rates. It was verified that the aforementioned factors as well as their interactions were statistically significant at the 95% confidence level. The effect of foreign ions was evaluated using a fractionary factorial experimental design. The detection limit was 0.35 microg L(-1) and the precision was 1.6%. Results for recovery tests using different environmental samples were between 90 and 104%. Certified reference materials were analyzed in order to check the accuracy of the proposed method.     

Microchip based sample treatment device interfaced with ICP-MS for the analysis of transition metals from environmental samples

A downscaled solid phase (SPE) device applicable for sample preparation prior to ICP-MS monitoring, have been constructed making use of the lab on a chip concept. Standard photolithography and wet chemical etching were used to fabricate glass microfluidic devices accommodating three microchannels, each of them incorporating a defined section that could be packed with SPE materials; selective chelating resin. The microfluidic device was interfaced with the ICP-MS instrument throughout a low flow rate concentric nebuliser using a Teflon connector, and coupled with a flow injection manifold delivering samples and reagents via a manually operated splitting valve. The feasibility of the miniaturized prototype to perform SPE of trace metals was proved by analyzing trace metals, Cd, Co, and Ni, in seawater reference materials; CASS-2 and SLEW-1. The obtained result was in good agreement with the certified values. The device could be used as a remote miniaturized sample treatment for field work.     

金属有机骨架衍生材料在样品前处理中的应用研究进展

样品前处理技术在复杂样品的整个分析过程中起着至关重要的作用,其不仅可以提高痕量目标物在样品中的浓度,而且能有效消除样品基质对分析的干扰。对于样品前处理技术而言,吸附剂是其最为核心部分。因此开发高效、稳定的新型吸附剂已成为前处理技术领域的研究热点。近年来,由金属有机骨架(metal-organic frameworks, MOFs)衍生的多孔材料因其形貌结构多样、孔径可调、比表面积高、热稳定性良好、耐化学腐蚀等优异性能,使其在样品前处理领域拥有广阔的应用前景,基于MOFs衍生材料的样品前处理新方法也层出不穷。然而,MOFs衍生材料仍存在MOFs前驱体合成工艺复杂、生产成本高、量产困难等问题。该文总结了近几年来MOFs衍生材料在分散固相萃取(dSPE)、磁固相萃取(MSPE)、固相微萃取(SPME)、搅拌棒固相萃取(SBSE)和分散微固相萃取(DMSPE)等样品前处理技术中的研究进展,并对多种MOFs衍生材料的制备方法、功能化调控、富集效率等方面进行了评述。最后,展望了MOFs衍生材料在该领域中的应用前景,为进一步研究MOFs衍生材料的应用提供了参考。     

Radionuclide analysis using solid phase extraction disks

The use of solid phase extraction (SPE) disks was studied for the quantification of selected radionuclides in aqueous solutions. The extraction of four radionuclides using six types (two commerical, four test materials) of 3M Empore^TM RAD disks was studied. The radionuclides studied were: technetium-99 (two types of disks), cesium-137 (two types), strontium-90 (one type), plutonium-238 (one type). Extractions were tested from DI water, river water and seawater. Extraction efficiency, kinetics (flow rate past the disk), capacity, and potential interferences were studied as well as quantification methods.     

SO_4~(2-)/TiO_2、PO_4~(3-)/TiO_2、BO_3~(3-)/TiO_2系列固体酸的酸性、结构和晶相的研究

制备了ＳＯ４２－／ＴｉＯ２（Ⅰ）、ＰＯ４３－／ＴｉＯ２（Ⅱ）、ＢＯ３３－／ＴｉＯ２（Ⅲ）系列固体酸。用ＩＲ、Ｒａｍａｎ光谱对该系列固体酸进行结构表征,结果表明ＳＯ４２－与ＴｉＯ２表面的结合为螯合式双配位结构和共价硫酸盐共存,ＰＯ４３－与ＴｉＯ２表面的结合为桥式三配位结构,ＢＯ３３－与ＴｉＯ２表面的结合为单齿单配位结构和螯桥混合式三配位结构共存。用由溶液中正丁胺的吸附等温线测定固体表面酸度的方法测定了样品的酸量,结果表明酸量大小为Ⅰ＞Ⅱ＞Ⅲ。用ＸＲＤ技术对该系列固体酸进行考察,衍射图分析提示该系列固体酸主要都为锐钛矿型晶型,但Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ中又各自夹杂其它不同的晶型     

Electrosynthesis of a new selective chelating agent for solid phase extraction of Ni(II) from water samples: characterisation and analytical applications

A new polymer as a selective chelating agent for separation and preconcentration of nickel ions from water samples was prepared by electropolymerisation of 4-nitrophenol. Electrosynthesis was carried out on the lead cathode in aqueous sodium acetate solution. The electrode-product is a dark-brown powder, insoluble in water but soluble in methanol, N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) and tetrahydrofuran (THF). The electrode-product was characterised by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), gel permeation chromatography (GPC), FT-IR, ¹H-NMR, cyclic voltammetry (CV) and UV-Vis spectrometry. A proper mechanism and structure of the prepared polymer was suggested. A few drops of methanolic solution of electrode-product formed a blue complex with nickel ions in an aqueous medium in the pH range of 6 to 10. This new chelating reagent was used as a coating material on activated charcoal and applied for solid phase extraction of trace amounts of nickel ions from natural and waste waters. The effect of different parameters such as type of eluent, elution conditions, sample volume and sample flow rate and mass of coating material were studied. In the presence of co-existing ions, no significant interferences were observed. Under the optimal conditions, limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) were 0.32 and 1 µg L^?1 Ni(II), respectively. The proposed method was used for determination of Ni(II) in some lagoons south of the Caspian Sea and waste waters of factories. The validity of this method was confirmed by the comparison of the obtained results with the results of ICP-OES.     

Solid phase extraction of Pd(II) on a newly synthesized chelating resin prior to determination by flame atomic absorption spectrometry

A new solid phase extraction method for the separation and preconcentration of Pd(II) was developed. As solid phase material, a new chelating polymer, poly [N-(4-bromophenyl)-2-methacrylamide-co-2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid - co-divinylbenzene] was synthesized. The parameters such as the effect of pH, eluent type, volume and concentration, flow rate of sample solution, sample volume and effect of interfering ions for the preconcentration of Pd(II) were investigated. The optimum pH was found to be 9. Eluent for quantitative elution was 10 mL of 1 mol L^?1 HCl. The preconcentration factor of the method was 75. At optimum conditions, the recovery for Pd(II) was found to be 101?±?4%. The limit of detection (3σ) was 1.1?µg L^?1. The method was applied to the determination of palladium in tap water and converter samples with satisfactory results.     

Determination of lead and mercury in sea water by preconcentration in a flow injection system followed by atomic absorption spectrometry detection

The capabilities of three solid chelating reagents were compared for the preconcentration of lead and mercury in high salinity aqueous samples (sea waters). The tested materials were 7-(4-ethyl-1-methyloctyl)-8-hydroxiquinoline (Kelex 100) adsorbed on Bondapack C18 (Kelex-100/C18), 8-hydroxiquinoline immobilized on vinyl co-polymer Toyopearl gel (TSK) and the commercial polystyrene/DVB ion exchange resin with paired iminodiacetate groups (Chelex-100). The two metals preconcentration and final determination were carried out in a flow injection system, coupled on-line to an atomic absorption spectrometric detector. Analytes were preconcentrated in the minicolumn, packed with the materials under investigation, while elution was achieved by injection of 500 μl of an adequate mineral acid solution. The different packing materials and minicolumn designs have been evaluated in terms of sensitivity for simultaneous preconcentration of both metals in sea water. Regarding the solid support, the best results were obtained for the TSK solid phase. Concerning the minicolumn design, the behavior was different for lead and mercury. Lead was quantitatively eluted with 0.5 M HCl and best performance was achieved when packing the solid material in a minicolumn with relatively small volume (1 cm length and 2.5 mm i.d.). In the case of mercury, bigger minicolumn volumes (5.5 cm length and 5.0 mm i.d.) and mixtures, 2 M HCl+1 M HNO₃, were required for its quantitative recovery and elution. The system has been evaluated for quantitative determination of the two metals under study in different Asturian coastal aqueous samples.     

金属有机骨架复合材料在样品预处理中的研究进展

金属有机骨架（MOFs）材料是近几年涌现出的一类新型多功能多孔材料,以金属离子或金属簇为配位中心,与含氧或氮的有机配体通过配位作用形成多孔骨架结构。相比于其他传统无机多孔材料,MOFs具有比表面积高、孔隙率大、热稳定性好和结构与功能多样化的特点,因而被广泛用于气体存储、催化、吸附和分离等领域。MOFs复合材料在样品预处理方面的应用引起了研究者们的极大兴趣和广泛关注。由于MOFs材料和不同功能材料如高分子聚合物、碳基材料以及磁性材料组装复合,使MOFs复合材料的性能优于原来的MOFs材料。综述了近年MOFs复合材料在样品预处理的研究应用,尤其是在固相微萃取、固相萃取以及磁性固相萃取等方面的应用。     

Application of polyurethane foam as a sorbent for trace metal pre-concentration — A review

The first publication on the use of polyurethane foam (PUF) for sorption processes dates back to 1970, and soon after the material was applied for separation processes. The application of PUF as a sorbent for solid phase extraction of inorganic analytes for separation and pre-concentration purposes is reviewed. The physical and chemical characteristics of PUF (polyether and polyester type) are discussed and an introduction to the characterization of these sorption processes using different types of isotherms is given. Separation and pre-concentration methods using unloaded and loaded PUF in batch and on-line procedures with continuous flow and flow injection systems are presented. Methods for the direct solid sampling analysis of the PUF after pre-concentration are discussed as well as approaches for speciation analysis. Thermodynamic proprieties of some extraction processes are evaluated and the interpretation of determined parameters, such as enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy in light of the physico-chemical processes is explained.     

Rapid determination of lead in water samples by dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction coupled with electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry

The need for highly reliable methods for the determination of trace and ultratrace elements has been recognized in analytical chemistry and environmental science. A simple and powerful microextraction technique was used for the detection of the lead ultratrace amounts in water samples using the dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME), followed by the electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry (ET AAS). In this microextraction technique, a mixture of 0.50 mL acetone (disperser solvent), containing 35 microL carbon tetrachloride (extraction solvent) and 5 microL diethyldithiophosphoric acid (chelating agent), was rapidly injected by syringe into the 5.00 mL water sample, spiked with lead. In this process, the lead ions reacted with the chelating agent and were extracted into the fine droplets of CCl(4). After centrifugation (2 min at 5000 rpm), the fine CCl4 droplets were sedimented at the bottom of the conical test tube (25+/-1 microL). Then, 20 microL from the sedimented phase, containing the enriched analyte, was determined by ET AAS. The next step was the optimization of various experimental conditions, affecting DLLME, such as the type and the volume of the extraction solvent, the type and the volume of the disperser solvent, the extraction time, the salt effect, pH and the chelating agent amount. Moreover, the effect of the interfering ions on the analytes recovery was also investigated. Under the optimum conditions, the enrichment factor of 150 was obtained from only a 5.00 mL water sample. The calibration graph was linear in the range of 0.05-1 microg L(-1) with the detection limit of 0.02 microg L(-1). The relative standard deviation (R.S.D.) for seven replicate measurements of 0.50 microg L(-1) of lead was 2.5%. The relative lead recoveries in mineral, tap, well and sea water samples at the spiking level of 0.20 and 0.40 microg L(-1) varied from 93.5 to 105.0. The characteristics of the proposed method were compared with the cloud point extraction (CPE), the liquid-liquid extraction, the solid phase extraction (SPE), the on-line solid phase extraction (SPE) and the co-precipitation, based on bibliographic data. The main DLLME advantages combined with ET AAS were simplicity of operation, rapidity, low cost, high-enrichment factor, good repeatability, low consumption of extraction solvent, requiring a low sample volume (5.00 mL).     

Mycoestrogen determination in cow milk: Magnetic solid‐phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry analysis

Recently, magnetic solid‐phase extraction has gained interest because it presents various operational advantages over classical solid‐phase extraction. Furthermore, magnetic nanoparticles are easy to prepare, and various materials can be used in their synthesis. In the literature, there are only few studies on the determination of mycoestrogens in milk, although their carryover in milk has occurred. In this work, we wanted to develop the first (to the best of our knowledge) magnetic solid‐phase extraction protocol for six mycoestrogens from milk, followed by liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry analysis. Magnetic graphitized carbon black was chosen as the adsorbent, as this carbonaceous material, which is very different from the most diffuse graphene and carbon nanotubes, had already shown selectivity towards estrogenic compounds in milk. The graphitized carbon black was decorated with Fe₃O₄, which was confirmed by the characterization analyses. A milk deproteinization step was avoided, using only a suitable dilution in phosphate buffer as sample pretreatment. The overall process efficiency ranged between 52 and 102%, whereas the matrix effect considered as signal suppression was below 33% for all the analytes even at the lowest spiking level. The obtained method limits of quantification were below those of other published methods that employ classical solid‐phase extraction protocols.     

Enrichment of phenols from water with in-situ derivatization by in-tube solid phase microextraction-solvent desorption prior to off-line gas chromatographic determination with large-volume injection

Sorption of phenols from water into the stationary phase of open tubular columns (named in-tube solid phase microextraction) as an enrichment method for gas chromatographic (GC) analysis of aqueous samples was studied. The effect of operating conditions (stationary phase polarity, swelling of the stationary phase by solvents, number of sampling cycles, salting-out effect, sampling velocity, flow rate of desorption solvent) on the process efficiency was evaluated. Real water samples were also used in this study. Swelling of the stationary phase by organic solvent enables the volume of the stationary phase to be increased and its properties to be modified. The use of toluene or tetrachloromethane for the purpose results in high extraction efficiencies for most phenols. The results demonstrated a direct relationship between the extracted amount of phenols and its initial concentration in the sample. The limit of detection in off-line analyses applying large-volume injection was lower than 0.04 μg L⁻¹.These results of the use of in-tube solid phase microextraction with solvent desorption as a non-exhaustive (equilibrium sorptive) enrichment method show a great potential for on-line chromatographic analysis of micropollutants in real water samples.     

Application of a thiourea‐containing task‐specific ionic liquid for the solid‐phase extraction cleanup of lead ions from red lipstick,pine leaves,and water samples

Here, task‐specific ionic liquid solid‐phase extraction is proposed for the first time. In this approach, a thiourea‐functionalized ionic liquid is immobilized on the solid sorbent, multiwalled carbon nanotubes. These modified nanotubes packed into a solid‐phase extraction column are used for the selective extraction and preconcentration of ultra‐trace amounts of lead(II) from aqueous samples prior to electrothermal atomic absorption spectroscopy determination. The thiourea functional groups act as chelating agents for lead ions retaining them and so, give the selectivity to the sorbent. Elution of the retained ions can be performed using an acidic thiourea solution. The effects of experimental parameters including pH of the aqueous solution, type and amount of eluent, and the flow rates of sample and eluent solutions on the separation efficiency are investigated. The linear dependence of absorbance of lead on its concentration in the initial solution is in the range of 0.5–40.0 ng/mL with the detection limit of 0.13 ng/mL (3s_b/m, n = 10). The proposed method is applicable to the analysis of red lipstick, pine leaves, and water samples for their lead contents.     

Potentialities of fibrous ion-exchange materials in the determination of sulfate ions by color reactions of barium with organic reagents on a solid phase

The possibility of the determination of sulfate ions with the use of fibrous materials filled with ion exchangers on the basis of color reactions of barium with the organic reagents Arsenazo III, Orthanilic B, and Orthanilic K on a solid phase was examined. A polyacrylonitrile fiber filled the cation exchanger KU-2; anion exchangers AB-17, A-5, ANKF-211, and EDE-10p; and polyampholyte ANKB-50 (PANV-ANKB-50) was used as the support. The study of the different techniques of the sorption of the reaction components demonstrated the efficiency of the two systems involving PANV-ANKB-50. The determination of sulfates is possible because of the sorption of the excess barium remaining after the reaction with sulfate ions in the solution and its detection on the solid phase with a solution of Arsenazo III or the detection of the excess barium remaining after the interaction with the solution of sulfate ions on the solid phase with a solution of Orthanilic K. The calibration plots are linear in the concentration range of sulfate ions 10^?4–10^?5 M.     

纳米材料掺杂聚合物整体柱的构筑及在前处理领域的应用

聚合物整体柱是由单体、交联剂、引发剂和致孔剂在模具中通过原位聚合而成的棒状整体。与传统的填充式固相萃取柱相比,聚合物整体柱吸附剂凭借制备简单、柱压低、传质快及pH使用范围宽泛等优点已广泛应用于食品分析、生物医药和环境卫生等领域的前处理中。然而,通常由于聚合方式难以控制,聚合物整体柱在制备过程中容易产生颗粒堆积、孔道不均匀从而导致孔隙率低和比表面积有限等问题。近年来,将纳米材料掺杂至聚合物整体柱以获得有序结构分布、良好吸附效率以及优越选择性能的新型吸附剂成为研究热点。纳米材料种类繁多,尺寸小,利用其表面丰富的活性基团、作用位点和超大的比表面积等优势,通过简单掺杂、共聚合和原位修饰等方法合成纳米掺杂聚合物整体柱,不仅能够改善其微观结构、柱床机械强度和稳定性,同时可以显著提高掺杂聚合物整体柱吸附剂的萃取性能和选择性。该文综述了碳材料、金属和金属氧化物、金属有机骨架、共价有机骨架和无机纳米粒子等不同纳米材料掺杂的聚合物整体柱、常用的构筑方法以及该类吸附剂在固相萃取、固相微萃取、搅拌棒吸附萃取和在线固相萃取等样品前处理领域的应用,并展望这一研究的发展趋势和应用前景,以期为前处理领域的研究提供参考。     

离子液体固定化材料在固相萃取中的应用研究进展

离子液体是由阴、阳离子组成的低温熔融盐,几乎没有蒸汽压,具有稳定性好、溶解能力强、结构可设计、导电性好等优良性能。离子液体作为一种广受关注的新型“绿色溶剂”,具有代替传统有机溶剂的潜力,其制备方法和应用范围研究日趋完善和多样,已广泛应用于催化化学、光电化学、材料化学和分析化学等领域。离子液体通过功能化导向设计后,可以将羟基、氨基、羧基、氰基等活性基团键合在离子液体结构上,促使其更加易于与目标分子通过生成π-π键、氢键、离子键和范德华力等而产生相互作用,更加易于发生固定化反应。将离子液体负载到固体载体材料进行固定化后,新型材料既可以减少离子液体的流失,同时保留了离子液体和固体载体的独特性能,具有富集效率高、吸附容量高、稳定性好、识别位点多、萃取选择性强、离子液体利用率高等特点,近年来,在有机小分子固相萃取分离研究中应用广泛。该文从离子液体与硅胶、分子筛、分子印迹聚合物、氧化石墨烯、磁性材料等固体载体的固定化研究情况入手,综述了离子液体固定化材料在固相萃取分离中的应用情况,涉及的目标分离物质包括生物碱类、黄酮类、多酚类等天然活性成分,以及常见药物分子、有机农药等有机小分子化合物,系统地介绍了离子液体与多种载体固定化的性质、应用和分离机制。离子液体的引入,增加了复合材料的活性位点分布和吸附容量,离子液体固定化材料的吸附效率与离子液体种类、吸附材料用量、样品溶液浓度、吸附温度、pH值、洗脱溶剂类型、用量及流速等因素有关。该文探讨了离子液体结构相对单一、相关基础理论研究相对薄弱、复杂基质萃取程度不理想等问题,并提出相应的解决思路,以期为离子液体固定化材料在复杂基质中目标分子分离分析方面的应用提供借鉴和参考。