Erosion of Ductile and Brittle Materials

The fundamental mechanisms of erosion by solid particle impact were investigated in both brittle and ductile materials. A review of the literature of erosion theoretical models indicated various different models. The most important ones were used to reproduce experimental tests concerning the erosion by solid particle impingement using gas jets. If supported by an appropriate tuning of certain parameters, they perform well. Since a continuous tuning of these parameters is required, experiment based theoretical models seem to be inappropriate in the development of advanced materials for high temperature applications. Consequently, we have developed a new approach based on the finite element method. Since it only requires the knowledge of the main mechanical properties as a function of the temperature, it seems suitable for the erosion rate evaluation in a wide range of applications. Early assessment results, compared to experimental erosion tests conducted at room temperature, showed good predictive capabilities which are even better than theoretical models.     

聚脲涂层的冲蚀磨损机理研究

采用高速含沙水射流冲蚀磨损试验机测试了聚脲涂层的冲蚀磨损性能,试验结果表明所制备聚脲涂层具有优异的耐冲蚀性能.根据Bitter的塑性材料冲蚀模型,应用Matlab程序进行拟合计算,探讨聚脲涂层在不同冲蚀角度和速度下的冲蚀规律,研究表明聚脲涂层在冲蚀角度30°时切削磨损量最大,而接近90°时变形磨损量最大.     

钢结构表面涂层受风沙冲蚀机理和评价方法

内蒙古中西部地区钢结构表面涂层受风沙冲蚀磨损严重.在模拟钢结构涂层受风沙冲蚀磨损试验的基础上,应用扫描电子显微镜(SEM)观测涂层在不同冲蚀条件下的冲蚀磨损部位微观形貌,分析涂层材料受风沙冲蚀磨损的损伤机理,提出了评价涂层冲蚀磨损程度的计算方法.结果表明:低角度冲蚀时微切削作用占主导,硬度起决定作用,高角度冲蚀时挤压变形占主导,柔韧性起决定作用,由于涂层硬度较低,柔韧性好,所以高角度时涂层的耐冲蚀性能较好;最大冲蚀磨损失重量出现在45°左右,是由于该材料具有介于塑性和脆性材料之间的冲蚀磨损特性;速度越大,粒子的动能越大,冲蚀磨损失重量越大;在低浓度时,冲蚀磨损失重量随着浓度的增加而增加,而在高浓度时则出现下降的趋势;评价公式的计算结果与实验结果吻合.研究结果为钢结构涂层的耐久性研究提供了理论依据.     

水工混凝土小角度冲蚀磨损特性的研究

选用55kW的3GQ-2/70型高压清洗水射流装置作为水工混凝土的冲蚀磨损设备,考察了小角度条件下含沙高速水射流作用下混凝土材料的冲蚀磨损性能。结果表明：混凝土肥到严重的冲蚀磨损;在冲击角度较小时,混凝土材料的冲蚀磨损机制主要表现为硬质磨粒沿水平速度方向的切削作用,以及沿垂直方向的冲击作用导致的表面裂纹和脆性断裂;钢纤维对混凝土材料的小角度冲蚀破坏有明显的增强作用。     

3-D numerical simulation of fracture processes in heterogeneous brittle materials

By using the lattice model combined with finite element methods and statistical techniques, a numerical approach is developed to establish mechanical models of three-dimensional heterogeneous brittle materials. A special numerical code is introduced, in which a lattice model and statistical approaches are used to simulate the initial heterogeneity of material properties. The size of displacement-load step is adaptively determined so that only few elements would fail in each load step. When the tensile principal strain in an element exceeds the ultimate strain of this element, the element is considered broken and its Young's modulus is set to be very low. Some important behaviors of heterogeneous brittle materials are indicated using this code. Load-displacement curves and figures of three-dimensional fracture patterns are also numerically obtained, which are similar to those observed in laboratory tests.     

Al含量对FeCrNiCoCu高熵合金涂层组织结构及冲蚀性能的影响

采用放电等离子烧结(SPS)制备不同Al含量的Al_xFeCrNiCoCu(x=0,1,2,3)高熵合金涂层.通过XRD、SEM和冲蚀磨损等检测方法,研究了Al含量对该高熵合金涂层的组织及冲蚀磨损性能的影响.结果表明:FeCrNiCoCu高熵合金的微观组织主要为简单FCC结构的富Cu相及富Al相.随着Al元素增加,涂层的微观结构出现由FCC向BCC的转变.同时,涂层的硬度、耐冲蚀性也显著提高.随着冲蚀角度的增加,涂层的冲蚀磨损量逐渐增加,表现出脆性材料的冲蚀磨损特性.在冲蚀角度为90°时,随着Al元素的增加,涂层的主要冲蚀磨损机理逐渐由微切削和锻造挤压转变为犁削.     

空腔膨胀理论靶体阻力模型及其应用研究进展

从静/动态空腔膨胀模型的理论体系出发,介绍了空腔膨胀模型在不同方向上取得的成果,主要涉及理想侵彻条件的空腔膨胀压力计算模型及数值模拟方法和空腔膨胀模型在典型侵彻问题及复杂弹靶条件下的应用。在理想侵彻条件下的空腔膨胀压力计算模型中,主要讨论了靶体材料、屈服准则和状态方程对空腔边界应力的影响规律及空腔膨胀模型的适用性问题;根据数值模拟中初始条件的不同,介绍了空腔表面恒定速度/恒定压力两种数值模拟方法,证明了数值模拟方法的可靠性;整理了空腔膨胀模型的基本假设、适用范围、工程应用特点,列举了其在典型侵彻问题及多层复合靶板、约束靶体、弹体刻槽和异形截面形状弹体等复杂弹靶条件下的应用。针对空腔膨胀模型的研究现状,总结了目前空腔膨胀模型在冲击动力学领域的应用方向,归纳了空腔膨胀模型应用中尚存在的问题,展望了空腔膨胀模型下一步的重点发展方向。     

侵彻条件下两类靶体材料静阻力的探讨

以空腔膨胀理论为主要理论工具，通过比较侵彻近区塑性材料和脆性材料动力学行为的差异，对两类不同材料静阻力（R_t）的本质进行探讨，并对脆性材料侵彻的若干应用问题提出建议。研究表明:（1）R_t是靶体介质以固体特性抵抗局部扩孔、具有时间平均特性的弹体横截面平均应力，其具体取值随着材料的物理力学特性、侵彻模型、撞击速度等因素而变化，因此不是材料的固有特性。（2）对于塑性靶体的非变形侵彻问题，静态空腔膨胀理论的结果能够对R_t作出比较合理的预测；对于拟流体侵彻问题，一般需要对静态空腔膨胀理论的结果加以修正。（3）脆性材料的R_t主要取决于破碎后介质的力学特性而与完整材料的力学特性关系不大，且与单轴抗压强度之间不满足纯粹的单调关系；当侵彻速度较低时，应考虑侵彻速度对侵彻阻力的强化作用，这种强化作用的本质是内摩擦；当侵彻速度足够高时，脆性材料体现出恒定不变的“动力硬度”，其反映了材料的本征阻力特性。（4）提高脆性材料的侵彻阻力的关键在于减小应力波峰值后环向拉应力的幅值、抑制材料的破碎速度和程度，具体措施包括主动或被动地增加外围压、对基质中添加增韧增强纤维等；为了实现对脆性材料侵彻问题更高精度的数值模拟，建议更加重视对破碎介质动力学特性的研究。     

延性动态损伤的细观描述

对动载荷下材料的延性动态损伤的细观力学研究现状进行了评述，详细讨论了现有的几类典型的动态延性损伤的微孔生长模型。针对目前该领域工作中存在的问题，指出了今后应开展的工作方向。     

热障涂层的冲蚀破坏机理研究进展

耐高温、高隔热的热障涂层(thermal barrier coatings, TBCs) 技术因为能降低基底的工作温度, 提高 发动机的性能与热效率, 已经成为了航空发动机的关键热防护技术. 航空发动机在飞行过程中, 将不可避免地 受到燃烧室内各种杂质及外来颗粒的撞击, 从而发生冲蚀失效, 这一失效已成为制约TBCs 服役性能及其安 全应用的关键问题. 本文介绍了TBCs 冲蚀破坏机理的实验研究、有限元模拟、理论分析、试验模拟系统以及 实验检测技术方面的最新成果, 展望了TBCs 冲蚀机理研究的重点.      

风沙环境下钢结构涂层低角度冲蚀特性研究

针对风沙环境中钢结构涂层长期受冲蚀,涂层破坏直接降低钢结构体系耐久性的现状,采用能模拟风沙环境的气流挟沙喷射法对钢结构涂层试件进行了低角度冲蚀试验,用失重测量法测定涂层冲蚀失重量与沙剂量和冲击速度关系,进而评定冲蚀程度,用扫描电镜(SEM)观测分析涂层冲蚀区的微观形貌来分析冲蚀机理,并提出了涂层冲蚀程度评价计算公式.结果表明:涂层冲蚀失重量随沙剂量和冲击速度的增大而增加;低角度冲蚀主要为微切削作用,材料硬度起决定因素,高角度冲蚀主要为冲蚀挤压变形作用,材料韧性起决定作用,由于涂层材料硬度低而韧性高,故在低冲角下其受冲蚀程度严重;验证了评价计算公式用于评价涂层冲蚀程度的可靠性.研究结果将为准确评价风沙区钢结构体系耐久性提供依据.     

Discontinuous bifurcation analysis in fracture energy-based gradient plasticity for concrete

Conditions for discontinuous bifurcation in limit states of selective non-local thermodynamically consistent gradient theory for quasi-brittle materials like concrete are evaluated by means of both geometrical and analytical procedures. This constitutive formulation includes two internal lengths, one related to the strain gradient field that considers the degradation of the continuum in the vicinity of the considered material point. The other characteristic length takes into account the material degradation in the form of energy release in the cracks during failure process evolution.The variation from ductile to brittle failure in quasi-brittle materials is accomplished by means of the pressure dependent formulation of both characteristic lengths as described by Vrech and Etse (2009).In this paper the formulation of the localization ellipse for constitutive theories based on gradient plasticity and fracture energy plasticity is proposed as well as the explicit solutions for brittle failure conditions in the form of discontinuous bifurcation. The geometrical, analytical and numerical analysis of discontinuous bifurcation condition in this paper are comparatively evaluated in different stress states and loading conditions.The included results illustrate the capabilities of the thermodynamically consistent selective non-local gradient constitutive theory to reproduce the transition from ductile to brittle and localized failure modes in the low confinement regime of concrete and quasi-brittle materials.     

Theoretical statistical solution and numerical simulation of heterogeneous brittle materials

The analytical stress-strain relation with heterogeneous parameters is derived for theheterogeneous brittle materials under a uniaxial extensional load, in which the distributions of theelastic modulus and the failure strength are assumed to be statistically independent. This theoreticalsolution gives an approximate estimate of the equivalent stress-strain relations for 3-D heterogeneousmaterials. In one-dimensional cases it may provide comparatively accurate results. The theoreticalsolution can help us to explain how the heterogeneity influences the mechanical behaviors, Further, anumerical approach is developed to model the non-linear behavior of three-dimensional heterogeneousbrittle materials. The lattice approach and statistical techniques are applied to simulate the initialheterogeneity of heterogeneous materials. The load increment in each loading stage is adaptivelydetermined so that the better approximation of the failure process can be realized. When the maximumtensile principal strain exceeds the failure strain, the elements are considered to be broken, which canbe carried out by replacing its Young‘s modulus with a very small value. A 3-D heterogeneous brittlematerial specimen is simulated during a full failure process. The numerical results are in good agreementwith the analytical solutions and experimental data.     

Inconel 718镍基超合金的空蚀行为研究

采用超声振动空蚀试验机对Inconel 718镍基超合金与316L不锈钢进行空蚀磨损研究. 通过扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、场发射电镜(FESEM)以及高分辨X射线衍射仪对测试样品空蚀磨损表面形貌、微观结构演变和物相进行观察及分析. 结果表明:Inconel 718表现出更优异的抗空蚀磨损性能，其空蚀600 min累计质量损失约为316L的1/3，空蚀孕育期时长为316L不锈钢的2倍左右. 在空蚀孕育期，Inconel 718空蚀损伤首先发生在晶界、孪晶界等界面处，且并未出现明显的塑性变形. 316L在此期间呈现较为明显的塑性变形，空蚀表面起伏波动显著. 在空蚀加速期，Inconel 718质量损失的显著提升是由于空蚀表面微裂纹的扩展导致材料逐渐剥落引起的，316L则是由于空蚀表面大量凹坑的不断形成与合并导致质量损失的增加. Inconel 718空蚀120 min后，观察到空蚀磨损表面有明显的形变孪晶，且与空蚀前的金相形貌相比，形变孪晶有明显增多的趋势.      

影响冲击载荷下脆性材料碎片尺度的因素

概括回顾近年我们针对脆性材料受冲击拉伸载荷时的断裂及破碎现象的理论分析及数值模拟成果。重点分析碎片尺度对材料参数及加载速率的依赖关系。通过量纲分析,动力学模拟以及数值实验,建立了一个普适性的无量纲关系用以评估碎片尺度。将本研究结果与其他理论及现有实验结果进行的比较表明本模型更为完善合理。     

金属材料脆性断裂机理的实验研究

材料的脆性断裂有许多准则和模型,但对脆断机理和变化规律缺乏合理的描述,给工程应用带来不便。本文对典型脆性材料球墨铸铁、灰铸铁分别进行了拉扭双轴断裂实验和常规拉伸、扭转破坏实验;对韧性金属材料合金钢进行了单轴拉伸颈缩破坏实验。通过上述实验分析了脆性材料和韧性材料发生脆性断裂的机理特征并选择应力三维度作为应力状态参数描述危险点的应力状态,同时考察了脆性材料和韧性材料发生脆性断裂的主导因素。结果表明:韧性材料45#钢和14CrNiMoV合金钢在颈缩断面心部应力三维度值较大时发生脆性拉断,而在颈缩断面边缘处应力三维度值较小时发生剪断;脆性材料球墨铸铁在应力三维度值为0.0～0.33之间变化时均发生脆性断裂;灰铸铁在应力三维度值大于0.0时发生脆性拉断,而在应力三维度值小于0.0时发生剪断。因此可以认为,材料的细观组织结构和危险点应力状态是影响断裂机理及变化规律的主要因素。对于同种材料,随着应力三维度代数值从小向大变化材料的断裂机制由塑性剪切断裂逐渐转变为脆性断裂。本文通过对几种材料的脆性断裂危险点和断裂方向的研究给出了脆断宏观破坏条件。     

Zr基非晶合金JH-2模型的构建及应用

为构建Zr_62.5Nb₃Cu_14.5Ni₁₄Al₆非晶合金在高压、大应变、高应变率状态下的材料模型，采用根据实验数据理论推导和数值模拟对比反馈的方法，对材料的Johnson-Holmquist本构模型（JH-2模型）参数进行了研究:材料的静水压力-体应变关系通过平板冲击实验数据和理论推导得到；无损材料强度与应变、应变率的关系通过轴向压缩实验数据确定；材料损伤参数与破碎材料强度参数的关系通过平板冲击实验数据确定；破碎材料强度参数通过数值模拟与实验结果对比的反馈法得到。将材料模型应用于平板冲击和破片侵彻的数值模拟，通过数值模拟与实验结果对比的方式，验证材料模型的准确性。结果表明，平板冲击实验中，材料的自由面粒子速度曲线与数值模拟结果吻合度较高；破片侵彻实验中，破片对钢靶的侵彻深度、开坑孔径与数值模拟结果的一致性较好，构建的材料模型较准确反映了材料的动态力学特性。     

Statistical characterization of meso-scale uniaxial compressive strength in brittle materials with randomly occurring flaws

Increasingly fine spatial resolution in numerical models of brittle materials promises to improve prediction and characterization of dynamic failure in these materials. However, as the resolution of these numerical models begins to approach the material micro-scale, the associated discretization requires a definitive connection to the microstructure. In many cases a numerical model (e.g., a finite element mesh) that explicitly resolves each flaw within the material is not feasible for macro-scale analyses. As an alternative, each element can be treated as a meso-scale continuum with constitutive properties that reflect the characteristics of the underlying microstructure. Small scale elements will exhibit random variations in the constitutive properties as a result of the random variations in the number and types of flaws and the flaw sizes contained within each element. The present paper proposes a technique for assigning probability distributions to these element properties, which can be thought of as the meso-scale constitutive properties. In particular, the strain-rate dependent compressive uniaxial strength of a ceramic is modeled using a two-dimensional analytical model developed by Paliwal and Ramesh (2008). The effect on the probability distribution of meso-scale (or element-level) strength from flaw density, flaw size distribution, flaw clustering, and strain rate are studied. Higher strain rates, more flaw clustering, and decreasing element size all contribute to greater scatter in uniaxial compressive strength. Variations in flaw size increase the scatter in the strength more for low strain rate loadings and less clustered microstructures. The results provide interesting comparisons to the classical assumption of a two-parameter Weibull-distributed strength, showing that a three-parameter Weibull distribution and even a lognormal distribution fit better with the simulated strength data.     

Mechanical modelling of ductile fracture

Mechanical models of material failure by void growth to coalescence are described to give a brief overview of methods applied in the analysis of ductile fracture. Approximate constitutive relations for porous ductile materials are discussed, modelling both the nucleation and growth of voids. The application of the material models is illustrated by numerical analyses for a tensile test specimen and for dynamic, ductile crack growth. Unstable void growth is a relevant mechanism in ductile materials subject to a high level of triaxial tension. The analysis of such cavitation instabilities in elastic-perfectly plastic materials is discussed for axisymmetric stress states, and the relevance to metal/ceramic components is emphasized.General Lecture presented at the 10th Italian National Congress of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics; AIMETA, Pisa, October 1990.     

热处理对NiTi形状记忆合金冲蚀磨损性能的影响

采用自制浆罐式砂水冲蚀磨损试验装置研究了4种经不同条件热处理的NiTi合金与1Cr18Ni9Ti不锈钢的冲蚀磨损性能;采用XL-30型扫描电子显微镜观察试样的冲蚀磨损表面形貌;采用MH-6型显微硬度计测量NiTi合金硬度;采用自制拉伸装置测量NiTi合金的力学性能.结果表明:5种试样的冲蚀磨损量随着冲蚀时间、冲蚀速度、砂水比及砂粒度的增加而增大,4种NiTi合金的耐冲蚀性能相近,均明显优于1Cr18Ni9Ti不锈钢,其中试样NiTi-3和NiTi-1表现出较好的耐冲蚀性能;硬度并非NiTi合金冲蚀磨损性能的决定因素,超弹性和超塑性是NiTi合金具有较好耐冲蚀性的主要原因,热处理使得NiTi合金的超弹性变形量减小,但增加了NiTi合金的塑性变形量;合金丝磨损表面不同部位的磨损机理不同,中部为典型的变形磨损,侧面为微切削磨损,5种试样均表现为典型的韧性材料冲蚀磨损特征.