Continuous, large strain, tension/compression testing of sheet material

Modeling sheet metal forming operations requires understanding of the plastic behavior of sheet alloys along non-proportional strain paths. Measurement of hardening under reversed uniaxial loading is of particular interest because of its simplicity of interpretation and its application to material elements drawn over a die radius. However, the compressive strain range attainable with conventional tests of this type is severely limited by buckling. A new method has been developed and optimized employing a simple device, a special specimen geometry, and corrections for friction and off-axis loading. Continuous strain reversal tests have been carried out to compressive strains greater than 0.20 following the guidelines provided for optimizing the test. The breadth of application of the technique has been demonstrated by preliminary tests to reveal the nature of the Bauschinger effect, room-temperature creep, and anelasticity after strain reversals in commercial sheet alloys.     

Gigacycle fatigue behaviors of two SNCM439 steels with different tensile strengths

Gigacycle fatigue behaviors of two SNCM439 steels with different tensile strengthes were experimentally studied by rotating bending tests,to investigate the effects of the tensile strength obtained by different heat treatment processes on very high cycle fatigue failure mechanisms.The material with higher tensile strength of 1 710 MPa exhibited typical gigacycle fatigue failure characteristics,whereas one with lower tensile strength of 1 010 MPa showed only traditional fatigue limit during the tests and no gigacycle failure could be found even when the specimen ran up to more than 10 8 cycles.Metallographic and fractographic analysis were carried out by an optical microscope (OM) and scanning electron microscope (SEM).It showed two different crack initiation mechanisms that for the specimen with lower tensile strength the crack prefers surface initiation and for that with higher strength the crack initiates from subsurface inclusions revealed by a fish-eye like microstructure.     

<Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">In-Situ</Emphasis> Mechanical Testing for Characterizing Strain Localization During Deformation at Elevated Temperatures

An experimental methodology has been developed to characterize local strain heterogeneities in alloys via in-situ scanning electron microscope (SEM) based mechanical testing. Quantitative measurements of local strains as a function of grain orientation, morphology and neighborhood are crucial for mechanistic understanding and validation of crystal plasticity models. This study focuses on the technical challenges associated with performing creep tests at elevated temperatures ≤700°C in an SEM. Samples of nickel-based superalloy Rene 104 were used for this study, but the technique is applicable to testing of any metal samples at elevated temperature. Electron beam lithography was employed to produce a suitable surface speckle pattern of hafnium oxide to facilitate full field displacement measurements using a commercial software package. The speckle pattern proved to have good thermal stability and provided excellent contrast for image acquisition using secondary electron imaging at elevated temperature. The speckle pattern and microscope magnification were optimized to obtain the resolution necessary to discern strain localizations within grain interiors and along grain boundaries. Minimum strain resolution due to SEM image distortions was determined prior to tensile testing, and image integration methods were utilized to minimize imaging artifacts. Limitations due to the present specimen heating method and potential solutions to these limitations are also addressed.     

An experimental and numerical investigation of different shear test configurations for sheet metal characterization

Simple shear tests are widely used for material characterization especially for sheet metals to achieve large deformations without plastic instability. This work describes three different shear tests for sheet metals in order to enhance the knowledge of the material behavior under shear conditions. The test setups are different in terms of the specimen geometry and the fixtures. A shear test setup as proposed by Miyauchi, according to the ASTM standard sample, as well as an in-plane torsion test are compared in this study. A detailed analysis of the experimental strain distribution measured by digital image correlation is discussed for each test. Finite element simulations are carried out to evaluate the effect of specimen geometries on the stress distributions in the shear zones. The experimental macroscopic flow stress vs. strain behavior shows no significant influence of the specimen geometry when similar strain measurements and evaluation schemes are used. Minor differences in terms of the stress distribution in the shear zone can be detected in the numerical results. This work attempts to give a unique overview and a detailed study of the most commonly used shear tests for sheet metal characterization. It also provides information on the applicability of each test for the observation of the material behavior under shear stress with a view to material modeling for finite element simulations.     

铁基大块非晶合金的摩擦磨损性能研究

采用电弧熔炼、铜模吸铸法制备Fe基大块非晶合金,利用球-盘式摩擦磨损试验机进行干摩擦磨损试验,研究了铸态Fe基大块非晶合金的摩擦磨损行为及热处理对其耐磨性的影响,利用扫描电子显微镜观察合金磨损表面形貌,分析了Fe基大块非晶合金以及相同成分晶态合金的磨损机理.结果表明:在本试验条件下,铸态Fe基大块非晶合金的耐磨性高于相同成分的晶态合金,热处理可以有效提高铸态Fe基大块非晶合金的耐磨性,在保持完全非晶状态的前提下,退火态非晶合金的磨损率较铸态非晶合金减小约40%;材料的结构和性能对合金的摩擦系数影响不大,当进入稳定阶段后Fe基大块非晶合金的摩擦系数稳定在0.58左右;不同处理状态的Fe基大块非晶合金和相同成分晶态合金的磨损机制不同,非晶合金的磨损机制以疲劳磨损为主兼有磨粒磨损,相同成分晶态合金的磨损机制为粘着磨损和磨粒磨损共同作用的结果.     

Damage of a high-energy solid propellant and its effects on combustion

In order to improve the safety of high-energy solid propellants, a study is carried out for the effects of damage on the combustion of the NEPE (Nitrate Ester Plasticized Polyether) propellant. The study includes: (1) to introduce damage into the propellants by means of a large-scale drop-weight apparatus; (2) to observe microstructural variations of the propellant with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and then to characterize the damage with density measurements; (3) to investigate thermal decomposition; (4) to carry out closed-bomb tests. The NEPE propellant can be considered as a viscoelastic material. The matrices of damaged samples are severely degraded, but the particles are not. The results of the thermal decomposition and closed-bomb tests show that the microstructural damage in the propellant affects its decomposition and burn rate.     

Theory of necking localization in unconstrained electromagnetic expansion of thin sheets

Certain sheet metal alloys of industrial interest show a significant increase in ductility, over conventional forming methods, when high speed electromagnetic processes are used. The present work models the necking localization of a metal sheet during an electromagnetic process and examines the factors that influence this process. A Marciniak–Kuczynski “weak band” model is used to predict the onset of necking of a thin sheet under plane stress, an idealization of the local conditions in a thin sheet subjected to unconstrained electromagnetic loading. It is found that electromagnetic forming (EMF) increases ductility over quasistatic techniques due to the material’s strain-rate sensitivity, with ductility increasing monotonically with applied strain rates. The electric current also increases onset of necking strains, but the details depend on thermal sensitivity and temperature-dependence of the strain-rate sensitivity exponent. Given the insensitivity of the results to actual strain profiles, this local type analysis provides a useful tool that can be used for ductility predictions involving EMF processes.     

A Device Enhancement for the Dry Sliding Friction Coefficient Measurement Between Steel 1080 and VascoMax with Respect to Surface Roughness Changes

An enhancement of an existing tribometer device developed by Philippon et al. (Wear 257:777–784, 2004) is presented in this work. This experimental device is made up of a dynamometer ring and a specific load sensor allowing to apply an apparent normal force on specimens and to measure frictional forces respectively. A set of strain gauges are added to the upgraded dynamometer ring in this new configuration. The apparent normal force can be recorded accurately during the sliding process. The setup is adapted on a hydraulic testing machine to carry out steel-on-steel dry sliding tests. The first set of standard Steel on standard Steel specimens (XC 38 French standard steel) with two apparent normal pressures are imposed (8 and 80 MPa) as the range of sliding velocities varies from 0.12 to 3.72 m/s for the same contact conditions. The main set of experiments with low sliding velocities (varying from 0 to 3 m/s) for the Steel 1080 on Steel VascoMax are performed in the same tested setup. The recordings of normal and tangential forces leading to the friction coefficient determination are discussed. The values of dry friction coefficient μ according to the experimental parameters are in good agreement with those observed in the literature. Using this new configuration, the effects of the sliding velocity on the surface roughness changes and on the dry fiction coefficient are also investigated. Additionally the surface roughness changes are also investigated. Performing the scans with use of the scanning electron microscope in particular locations of the specimens show the roughness decrease and reveal the occurrence of the wear phenomenon. Moreover, very interesting relations between wear and sliding velocity are observed.     

Soft X-ray scattering using FEL radiation for probing near-solid density plasmas at few electron volt temperatures

We report on soft X-ray scattering experiments on cryogenic hydrogen and simple metal samples. As a source of intense, ultrashort soft X-ray pulses we have used free-electron laser radiation at 92 eV photon energy from FLASH at DESY, Hamburg. X-ray pulses with energies up to 150 μJ and durations 15–50 fs provide interaction with the sample leading simultaneously to plasma formation and scattering. Experiments exploiting both of these interactions have been carried out, using the same experimental setup. Firstly, recording of soft X-ray inelastic scattering from near-solid density hydrogen plasmas at few electron volt temperatures confirms the feasibility of this diagnostics technique. Secondly, the soft X-ray excitation of few electron volt solid-density plasmas in bulk metal samples could be studied by recording soft X-ray line and continuum emission integrated over emission times from fs to ns.     

690合金传热管在不同摩擦副条件下的微动磨损性能研究

采用MFF-3000电磁振动微动疲劳与磨损试验机，研究两种抗振条材料(退火405不锈钢和淬火回火06Cr13)对690合金传热管的微动磨损性能的影响，试验采用块/管线接触方式，即线接触. 试验结束后，采用OM、SEM、EDX和EPMA和三维光学显微镜对磨痕微观形貌和成分等进行分析，对比分析两种摩擦副的微动摩擦行为. 结果表明:当配副材料为405不锈钢时，690合金的磨损相对严重；工况相同时，06Cr13的磨损比405不锈钢严重，且405不锈钢的磨屑尺寸较小，06Cr13磨痕表面存在大量的剥层裂纹. 随着温度增加，磨屑增加，氧化程度加剧，磨损加剧，主要的磨损机制为磨粒磨损和剥层.      

碳化物抗氧化稳定性及其与基体的协同作用对Cr—Ni合金铸铁高温耐磨性的影响

通过改变Cr-Ni合金铸铁中共晶碳化物的抗氧化稳定性,在可控气氛高温磨料磨损试验机上研究了碳化物及其与基体的氧化协同性对合金耐高温磨料磨损能力的影响。结果表明：碳化物的抗氧化稳定性以及碳化物与基体的氧化大无畏同性对合金在大气气氛中的高温耐磨性起着重要的作用。在Cr-Ni合金铸铁中,碳化物在高温氧化气氛中将优先于合金基体发生氧化腐蚀,使合金的耐磨性得到极大损害,因此,使碳化物与合金基体在高温下保持协同的高温稳定性对合金的高温耐磨性非常有利。     

Continuum modeling of the response of a Mg alloy AZ31 rolled sheet during uniaxial deformation

Lightweight magnesium alloys, such as AZ31, constitute alternative materials of interest for many industrial sectors such as the transport industry. For instance, reducing vehicle weight and thus fuel consumption can actively benefit the global efforts of the current environmental industry policies. To this end, several research groups are focusing their experimental efforts on the development of advanced Mg alloys. However, comparatively little computational work has been oriented towards the simulation of the micromechanisms underlying the deformation of these metals. Among them, the model developed by Staroselsky and Anand [Staroselsky, A., Anand, L., 2003. A constitutive model for HCP materials deforming by slip and twinning: application to magnesium alloy AZ31B. International Journal of Plasticity 19 (10), 1843–1864] successfully captured some of the intrinsic features of deformation in Magnesium alloys. Nevertheless, some deformation micromechanisms, such as cross-hardening between slip and twin systems, have been either simplified or disregarded. In this work, we propose the development of a crystal plasticity continuum model aimed at fully describing the intrinsic deformation mechanisms between slip and twin systems. In order to calibrate and validate the proposed model, an experimental campaign consisting of a set of quasi-static compression tests at room temperature along the rolling and normal directions of a polycrystalline AZ31 rolled sheet, as well as an analysis of the crystallographic texture at different stages of deformation, has been carried out. The model is then exploited by investigating stress and strain fields, texture evolution, and slip and twin activities during deformation. The flexibility of the overall model is ultimately demonstrated by casting light on an experimental controversy on the role of the pyramidal slip 〈c + a〉 versus compression twinning in the late stage of polycrystalline deformation, and a failure criterion related to basal slip activity is proposed.     

A Miniaturized Biaxial Deformation Rig for in Situ Mechanical Testing

A novel miniaturized biaxial deformation rig is presented. It allows one to apply in-plane biaxial stress states with arbitrary stress ratios and to perform strain path changes on thin-sheet metals. The device is optimized for in situ usage inside a scanning electron microscope and at synchrotron beam lines. The sample has a cruciform shape and the geometry is optimized with the aid of finite element simulations. A proof-of-principle experiment confirms the successful operation of this rig.     

The shear fracture of dual-phase steel

Unexpected fractures at high-curvature die radii in sheet forming operations limit the adoption of advanced high strength steels (AHSS) that otherwise offer remarkable combinations of high strength and tensile ductility. Identified as “shear fractures” or “shear failures,” these often show little sign of through-thickness localization and are not predicted by standard industrial simulations and forming limit diagrams. To understand the origins of shear failure and improve its prediction, a new displacement-controlled draw-bending test was developed, carried out, and simulated using a coupled thermo-mechanical finite element model. The model incorporates 3D solid elements and a novel constitutive law taking into account the effects of strain, strain rate, and temperature on flow stress. The simulation results were compared with companion draw-bend tests for three grades of dual-phase (DP) steel over a range of process conditions. Shear failures were accurately predicted without resorting to damage mechanics, but less satisfactorily for DP 980 steel. Deformation-induced heating has a dominant effect on the occurrence of shear failure in these alloys because of the large energy dissipated and the sensitivity of strain hardening to temperature increases of the order of 75 °C. Isothermal simulations greatly overestimated the formability and the critical bending ratio for shear failures, thus accounting for the dominant effect leading to the inability of current industrial methods to predict forming performance accurately. Use of shell elements (similar to industrial practice) contributes to the prediction error, and fracture (as opposed to strain localization) contributes for higher-strength alloys, particularly for transverse direction tests. The results illustrate the pitfall of using low-rate, isothermal, small-curvature forming limit measurements and simulations to predict the failure of high-rate, quasi-adiabatic, large-curvature industrial forming operations of AHSS.     

Mechanical characterization of the role of defects in sintered FeCrAlY foams

Open celled metal foams fabricated through metal sintering are a new class of material that offers novel mechanical and acoustic properties. Previously, polymer foams have been widely used as a means of absorbing acoustic energy. However, the structural applications of these foams are limited. The metal sintering approach offers a cost- effective means for the mass-production of open-cell foams from a range of materials, including high-temperature steel alloys. In this first part of two-paper series, the mechanical properties of open-celled steel alloy (FeCrAlY) foams were characterized under uniaxial compression and shear loading. Compared to predictions from established models, a significant knockdown in material properties was observed. This knockdown was attributed to the presence of defects throughout the microstructure that result from the unique fabrication process. Further in situ tests were carried out in a SEM (scanning electronic microscope) in order to investigate the effects of defects on the properties of the foams. Typically, the onset of plastic yielding was observed to occur at defect locations within the microstructure. At lower relative densities, ligament bending dominates, with the deformation initializing at defects. At higher relative densities, an additional deformation mechanism associated with membrane elements was observed. In the follow-up of this paper, a finite element model will be constructed to quantify the effects of defects on the mechanical performance of the open-cell foam. The project supported by the US Office of Naval Research (N000140210117), the National Basic Research Program of China (2006CB601202), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (10328203, 10572111, 10632060), and the National 111 Project of China (B06024).     

接触共振频率与摩擦噪声频率之间关系的试验研究

在金属往复滑动试验机上用2种尺寸不同和结构略有差别的球-平面摩擦副系统,对接触共振与摩擦噪声的相关性进行了试验研究.结果表明:摩擦系统的接触共振频率非常接近于摩擦噪声频率,两者相对误差不大于2%~5%.对发生尖叫噪声的磨痕形貌进行SEM扫描电镜分析发现:摩擦噪声的发生与摩擦过程中微凸体之间的锤击相互作用有着密切的联系,通过接触共振试验可以辨识实际滑动摩擦系统中最容易发生摩擦噪声的模态频率.     

Operator-split damage-plasticity applied to groove forming in food can lids

This paper presents a numerical–experimental analysis of damage engineering applied to a well-known industrial problem. Many food cans are manually opened by raising a tab on the lid, thus initiating a crack, which is propagated along a circumferential groove. The influence of the groove geometry and depth on the opening force and the resistance against premature opening is investigated for some packaging materials, by making use of dedicated experimental techniques and an operator-split damage-plasticity framework. Attention is focused on a small part of the groove at a location halfway the circular crack-path, 90⁰ from the crack initiation point. First, the groove manufacturing is analyzed by pressing a punch into a thin sheet of the material. Grooved specimens are loaded in tension, simulating the internal pressure during sterilization, and in shear, simulating the opening. Experiments have been carried out using a miniaturized tensile/compression stage located in the objective field of an optical microscope. For the computational analysis, an operator-split damage-plasticity model is proposed, where ductile damage is easily operated in conjunction with standard plasticity models. Simulations are done within a geometrically non-linear context, using a hypo-elasto-plastic material model with non-linear hardening and a contact algorithm to simulate the contact bodies in the groove forming process. An arbitrary–Lagrange–Euler (ALE) technique and adaptive remeshing are used to assure mesh quality during the large deformation process. The operator-split procedure used for the solution of the governing equations, allows to make easy use of a non-local damage operator as an extra feature within a commercial FEM package. Experimental results reveal that a reduction up to 20% for the opening force with unchanged pre-opening resistance can be reached with the use of an asymmetric punch for the groove forming. Numerical and experimental results are in good agreement. Simulations show that the industrial process of can lid production can be optimized considerably by controlling damage evolution in the first stage of the process.     

内爆炸载荷作用下7A55铝合金的动态性能及断裂行为

采用圆筒爆炸实验研究了内爆炸载荷作用下7A55铝合金的动态性能,用扫描电镜和光学显微镜 对破裂样品的断口形貌、金相组织等进行了微观分析。结果表明:在本文实验条件下,7A55铝合金能够承受 360MPa的内部爆炸加载;合金的断裂方式为剪切断裂,裂缝与筒壁的径向近似成45角;靠近圆筒内侧组织 中存在剪切变形带、绝热剪切带和裂纹,沿最大剪切应力面向外扩展。     

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATIGUE SURFACE MICROCRACK GROWTH IN VICINAL INCLUSION FOR POWDER METALLURGY ALLOYS

Inclusion flaw is one of the worst flaws of powder metallurgy. The inclusion flaw plays an important role in the failure of high temperature turbine materials in aircraft components and automotive parts, especially fatigue failure. In this paper, an experimental investigation of fatigue microcrack propagation in the vicinal inclusion were carried out by the servo-hydraulic fatigue test system with scanning electron microscope (SEM). It has been found from the SEM images that the fatigue surface microcrack occurs in the matrix and inclusion. According to the SEM images, the characteristics of fatigue crack initiation and growth in vicinal inclusion for powder metallurgy alloys are analyzed in detail. The effect of the geometrical shape and material type of surface inclusions on the cracking is also discussed with the finite element method (FEM).     

实现材料高应变率拉伸加载的爆炸膨胀环技术

设计了新型的爆炸膨胀环实验加载装置,加载装置中采用爆炸丝线起爆方式,避免了传统装置中对碰爆轰波加载时的应力不均匀性。利用新型的爆炸膨胀环实验技术研究了无氧铜材料的动态性能,利用激光位移干涉仪测量了试样环的径向速度历史,处理数据获得了无氧铜材料的流动应力-塑性应变-应变率的关系,为进一步利用爆炸膨胀环实验技术研究材料在高应变率拉伸加载时的本构关系奠定了基础。