Determination of Ti-6242 α and β slip properties using micro-pillar test and computational crystal plasticity

The properties and behaviour of an α−β colony Ti-6242 alloy have been investigated at 20 °C utilising coupled micro-pillar stress relaxation tests and computational crystal plasticity. The β-phase slip strength and intrinsic slip system strain rate sensitivity have been determined, and the β-phase shown to have stronger rate sensitivity than that for the α phase. Close agreement of experimental observations and crystal plasticity predictions of micro-pillar elastic-plastic response, stress relaxation, slip activation in both α and β-phases, and strain localisation within the α−β pillars with differing test strain rate, β morphology, and crystal orientations is achieved, supporting the validity of the properties extracted. The β-lath thickness is found to affect slip transfer across the α−β−α colony, but not to significantly change the nature of the slip localisation when compared to pure α-phase pillars with the same crystallographic orientation. These results are considered in relation to rate-dependent deformation, such as dwell fatigue, in complex multiphase titanium alloys.     

Dwell fatigue crack nucleation model based on crystal plasticity finite element simulations of polycrystalline titanium alloys

In this paper a crystal plasticity-based crack nucleation model is developed for polycrystalline microstructures undergoing cyclic dwell loading. The fatigue crack nucleation model is developed for dual-phase titanium alloys admitting room temperature creep phenomenon. It is a non-local model that accounts for the cumulative effect of slip on multiple slip systems, and involves evolving mixed-mode stresses in the grain along with dislocation pileups in contiguous grains. Rate dependent, highly anisotropic behavior causes significant localized stress concentration that increases with loading cycles. The crystal plasticity finite element (CPFE) model uses rate and size-dependent anisotropic elasto-crystal plasticity constitutive model to account for these effects. Stress rise in the hard grain is a consequence of time-dependent load shedding in adjacent soft grains, and is the main cause of crack nucleation in the polycrystalline titanium microstructure. CPFE simulation results are post-processed to provide inputs to the crack nucleation model. The nucleation model is calibrated and satisfactorily validated using data available from acoustic microscopy experiments for monitoring crack evolution in dwell fatigue experiments.     

Microstructural parameters affecting creep induced load shedding in Ti-6242 by a size dependent crystal plasticity FE model

This paper is aimed at identifying critical microstructural parameters that cause local stress concentration due to load shedding between microstructural regions of varying strengths. This stress is viewed as one of the fundamental reasons for crack initiation in Ti-6242. A rate dependent, anisotropic, elasto-crystal plasticity based finite element model (CPFEM) for poly-phase Ti-6242 is used in this study to identify the critical variables responsible for localized stress concentration due to load shedding. The model can account for various microstructural features like grain size, orientation and misorientation distributions. Various microstructural variables, such as crystal orientation, misorientation, grain size, Schmid factor and composition of phases, are considered in a detailed parametric study. Critical combinations of these parameters that result in high stress due to load shedding are identified. Finally, load shedding in a microstructure model of polycrystalline Ti-6242 is discussed from the results of CPFEM simulations. The model is statistically equivalent with respect to features observed in OIM scans.     

Ti-46Al-2Cr-2Nb和Ti6Al4V合金的干摩擦学性能对比研究

本文以商业Ti-6Al-4V合金为参照,考察了Ti-46Al-2Cr-2Nb(原子比)金属间化合物在不同载荷和速率下的干摩擦学行为,结果表明:Ti-46Al-2Cr-2Nb和Ti6Al4V合金的摩擦系数几乎相同,而Ti-46Al-2Cr-2Nb金属间化合物比Ti-6Al-4V具有更好的抗磨性;Ti-46Al-2Cr-2Nb和Ti6Al4V合金的磨损率均随载荷的增加而增加,Ti-46Al-2Cr-2Nb合金磨损率随滑动速率增加而增加,Ti-6Al-4V合金磨损率却随滑动速率增加呈下降直至稳定的趋势;Ti-46Al-2Cr-2Nb合金的磨损机制主要为疲劳磨损,Ti-6Al-4V合金的磨损机制为塑性变形,犁沟和剥落.     

基于晶体塑性理论研究铝材料高压高应变率下的强度特性

为了了解金属材料在极端加载下复杂动态响应过程中的多种机制和效应，重点针对Al材料在高压、高应变率加载下的塑性变形机制，在经典晶体塑性模型的基础上，对其中的非线性弹性、位错动力学和硬化形式进行改进，建立适用于高压、高应变率加载下的热弹-黏塑性晶体塑性模型。该模型可以较好地描述单晶铝和多晶铝材料屈服强度随压力的变化过程，相比宏观模型，用该模型还获得了多晶Al材料在冲击加载下的织构演化规律，揭示了织构择优取向行为和压力的关系。     

Mechanical properties of 6061 Al-Mg-Si alloy after very rapid heating

The effects of time, temperature and strain rate on the yield strength determined at elevated temperature have been investigated for 6061-T6 Al-Mg-Si alloy. To achieve very short times-at-temperature, nanosecond pulse heating produced by electron beam energy deposition was used along with one-dimensional stress-wave loading. When a relatively thick sample is heated in this way it cannot expand on the same time scale as the temperature increase. As a result, stress relief waves propagate in the material after energy deposition, and this deformation occurring at high strain-rates and elevated temperatures produces microstructural changes that reduce the strength of the alloy on the time scale of a few μs. This strength reduction occurs in addition to that due to the lowered shear modulus at-temperature, and is an essentially permanent change reflected in the greatly reduced room temperature strength of the material following nanosecond pulse heating.If the material is heated slowly enough so that the sample can expand as the temperature increases, and if the soaking time at temperature is less than required for microstructural changes in the alloy (e.g. approximately 3 s at 260°C), the yield strength measured at-temperature under wave propagation conditions drops in proportion to the shear modulus. In addition, the yield strength measurement is sensitive to the rate of deformation at elevated temperatures even for short times-at-temperature. The nature of this sensitivity is discussed in terms of thermally-activated dislocation motion.     

双相钛合金Ti‑6Al‑4V微观缺陷疲劳演化的片层结构分布效应

本文研究疲劳载荷作用下双相钛合金Ti-6Al-4V中片层结构对微观几何缺陷区域演化的影响．基于晶体塑 性有限元(Crystal Plasticity Finite Element, CPFE)理论,建立含微观椭圆缺陷的双相片层代表性体积单元 (Representative Volume Element, RVE)模型,通过调控缺陷附近的微观组织形貌,使缺陷两端分别出现单相结构和 片层结构,以突出双态合金中片层结构分布对微观缺陷演化的影响．模拟结果表明,位于微观缺陷两侧的晶粒, 片层结构的应变敏感性更大,应变沿缺口环向和沿晶内均呈不连贯波动．片层结构通过调节晶内应变,扩大承载 范围,可提高双相钛合金的抗疲劳特性．这一研究结果可为双相钛合金的疲劳裂纹萌生提供一个新的解释途径     

A cohesive zone model for fatigue crack growth allowing for crack retardation

A damage-based cohesive model is developed for simulating crack growth due to fatigue loading. The cohesive model follows a linear damage-dependent traction–separation relation coupled with a damage evolution equation. The rate of damage evolution is characterized by three material parameters corresponding to common features of fatigue behavior captured by the model, namely, damage accumulation, crack retardation and stress threshold. Good agreement is obtained between finite element solutions using the model and fatigue test results for an aluminum alloy under different load ratios and for the overload effect on ductile 316 L steel.     

一种基于电磁霍普金森杆的材料动态包辛格效应测试装置及方法

金属材料在复杂载荷条件下的动态力学行为研究一直备受关注，但受限于实验设备，金属材料的动态包辛格效应响应一直都难以获得。为了探究金属材料的包辛格效应与应变率效应之间的关系，本文中提出一种基于电磁霍普金森杆(electromagnetic split Hopkinson bar，ESHB) 的非同步加载实验技术，为测试金属材料在高应变率加载下的包辛格效应提供了一种有效的实验方法。本文中，首先介绍了非同步加载装置的主要特点，即可以用两列由脉冲发生器产生的应力波对受载试样进行连续的一次动态拉-压循环加载，且加载过程保证了应力波的一致性。分析了应力波对试样加载过程中的波传播历程，确保了加载过程的连续性。随后介绍了动态加载过程，数据处理方法和波形分离手段，并对动态加载过程进行应力平衡性分析，论证了实验装置的可靠性。最后采用该方法测试了5%预应变下6061铝合金动态压缩-动态拉伸的包辛格效应，并与准静态下的实验结果进行对比。实验结果表明，该材料单轴压缩没有明显的应变率效应，但其包辛格效应具有应变率依赖性，高应变率下材料的包辛格应力影响因子由0.07增大至0.17，具有显著的提升，这对传统意义上铝合金材料应变率不敏感的结论提出了挑战。     

Internal-state-variable based self-consistent constitutive modeling for hot working of two-phase titanium alloys coupling microstructure evolution

An internal-state-variable based self-consistent constitutive model was proposed for unified prediction of flow stress and microstructure evolution during hot working of wrought two-phase titanium alloys in both single-beta region and two-phase region. For each constituent phase of titanium alloys, a set of constitutive equations incorporating solution strengthening, Hall–Petch effect, dislocation interaction, and dynamic recrystallization were developed using internal state variable method. The effect of second phase on recystallization was modeled by considering particle stimulated nucleation and exerting drag force on boundary migration. The constitutive equations of constituent phases were implemented into a viscoplastic self-consistent scheme to predict the overall response of the aggregate. Predictions of the model are in good agreement with experimental results of the Ti–6Al–4V alloy and IMI834 alloy. The model can reproduce many features of the hot working of two-phase titanium alloys, including the dependence of flow stress on temperature, strain rate and alloying elements; the increase of strain rate sensitivity with temperature; the stress and strain partitionings between alpha and beta phases; the relatively high apparent activation energy in two-phase region, the decrease of recrystallization kinetics with temperature in two-phase region; and the decrease of recrystallized grain size with Zener–Hollomon parameter in beta working.     

孔洞缺陷对3D打印Ti-6Al-4V合金疲劳试样应力分布的影响

3D打印金属技术因其个性化及可用于加工复杂零件等显著优点,在医用骨植入体领域得到了快速发展,但3D打印金属材料的孔洞缺陷所引起的应力集中现象严重降低了其疲劳强度,限制了3D打印生物金属材料的运用。本文针对3D打印Ti-6Al-4V合金超声疲劳试样,分析了Micro CT扫描试样得到的三维图像,获得了试样内孔洞缺陷的数量与体积;选择体积分数占比最大的孔洞,采用有限元方法分析了三种不同孔洞分布形式下的局部应力集中现象。研究发现,因空间位置的不同,独立的孔洞、接近自由表面的孔洞、相邻的孔洞三种不同孔洞的分布情况的应力集中系数差异显著。研究结果在一定程度上解释了目前EBM技术打印Ti-6Al-4V合金的孔洞缺陷如何对材料受力后的局部应力情况产生影响。     

FeCrNi合金静动态物理本构模型研究

以金属材料塑性变形的位错动力学为基础,将FeCrNi合金的流动应力分解为非热应力和热激活应力两部分.通过对该合金屈服应力随温度变化特性、屈服应力的应变速率特性、孪晶组织的温度特性及位错组态的应变速率特性进行分析,认为非热应力不只是应变的函数,还与温度和应变速率相关,因此对Johnson-Cook模型方程形式进行修正以描述非热应力. 同时认为影响热激活应力的微结构参数主要为位错阻碍间距\Deltal, 定义并推导出表征\Delta l演化的g函数的表达式,将其引入Kocks的热激活方程,从而建立FeCrNi合金的物理型本构模型.该模型初步实现了对FeCrNi合金从室温到高温、从准静态到动态塑性变形行为的描述.      

Microstructure scaling properties and fatigue resistance of pre-strained aluminium alloys (part 1: Al–Cu alloy)

The objective of this work is to provide the link between the fatigue behaviour of pre-strained aluminium alloys and the scaling properties of damage induced on the fracture surface. Fatigue tests performed on pre-strained aluminium alloys revealed a large difference in their residual fatigue resistance linked to the material: the Al–Cu alloy demonstrated a sharp decrease of HCF life-time due to the pre-straining whereas the insensitivity of the Al–Mg alloy was clear. For the Al–Cu alloy, the investigations made at a ‘mechanical’ scale allow us to associate the strain energy absorbed during the prior loading with the aspect of the surface and the residual HCF life-time. The statistical characterization of the fatigue damaged zone was done from the measurement of the surface roughness. Scaling properties were established that allowed the conclusion of the universality of HCF damage kinetics as the mechanism controlling the sensitivity of Al–Cu alloy whatever the pre-straining history.     

NiTi形状记忆合金裂纹尖端热力耦合行为研究

本文对NiTi形状记忆合金I型裂纹尖端热力耦合行为进行了数值仿真分析和实验验证。建立了包含相变和热力耦合的本构模型,通过有限元计算得到了裂纹尖端附近的纵向应变、马氏体体积分数和温度场分布,依据马氏体相变情况对裂纹尖端有效应力强度因子进行了修正,揭示了加载速率对形状记忆合金裂纹尖端有效应力强度影子的影响规律。参数研究表明,随着加载频率的增加,裂纹尖端附近温度逐渐升高,马氏体相变区域逐渐缩小,有效应力强度因子呈下降趋势,形状记忆合金表现出增韧效应,有助于减缓裂纹扩展。本研究结果对于揭示热力耦合作用下超弹性形状记忆合金疲劳裂纹扩展规律具有重要参考意义。     

孪生诱发塑性对V-5Cr-5Ti合金应变硬化行为的影响

钒合金(V-Cr-Ti)作为潜在重要的聚变反应堆用结构材料, 近年来受到广泛的关注. 为了研究 V-5Cr-5Ti 合金不同应变率压缩下的应变硬化行为, 特别是孪生对塑性变形的影响, 以位错密度和孪晶演化为基础, 建立了该合金的应变硬化模型. 模型中考虑了孪晶中的位错滑移对材料塑性应变的贡献. 模拟结果表明, 由于孪生诱发塑性, 从而使动态压缩时的位错密度小于准静态加载时的, 这使得 V-5Cr-5Ti 合金在动态压缩时的应变硬化率比准静态加载时的小. 当孪晶形成后, 位错滑移引起的塑性应变率随应变增大而增大, 并逐渐接近加载应变率, 而孪生引起的塑性应变率则随应变增大而减小.      

Plasticity in polycrystalline fretting fatigue contacts

Plastic deformation at the scale of microstructure plays an important role in fretting fatigue failure of metals under cyclic loading. In this study, crystal viscoplasticity theory with a planar triple slip idealization is employed to represent crystallographic plasticity in two-dimensional fretting analyses of Ti-6Al-4V. Subsurface deformation maps, fretting maps, and shakedown maps are constructed based on application of J₂ plasticity theory for the polycrystalline substrate. Comparisons are then made with polycrystal viscoplasticity simulations, the latter suggesting that plastic ratchetting plays a significant role in the fretting fatigue process.     

Study of size effects in thin films by means of a crystal plasticity theory based on DiFT

In a recent publication, we derived the mesoscale continuum theory of plasticity for multiple-slip systems of parallel edge dislocations, motivated by the statistical-based nonlocal continuum crystal plasticity theory for single-glide given by Yefimov et al. [2004b. A comparison of a statistical-mechanics based plasticity model with discrete dislocation plasticity simulations. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 52, 279-300]. In this dislocation field theory (DiFT) the transport equations for both the total dislocation density and geometrically necessary dislocation (GND) density on each slip system were obtained from the Peach-Koehler interactions through both single and pair dislocation correlations. The effect of pair correlation interactions manifested itself in the form of a back stress in addition to the external shear and the self-consistent internal stress. We here present the study of size effects in single crystalline thin films with symmetric double slip using the novel continuum theory. Two boundary value problems are analyzed: (1) stress relaxation in thin films on substrates subject to thermal loading, and (2) simple shear in constrained films. In these problems, earlier discrete dislocation simulations had shown that size effects are born out of layers of dislocations developing near constrained interfaces. These boundary layers depend on slip orientations and applied loading but are insensitive to the film thickness. We investigate the stress response to changes in controlled parameters in both problems. Comparisons with previous discrete dislocation simulations are discussed.     

一种考虑拉伸保持效应的多轴疲劳寿命模型

通过定义考虑拉伸保载效应的CFI因子(creep-fatigue interaction factor)，将拉伸蠕变损伤和疲劳损伤进行非线性耦合. 根据断裂实验的观察，针对拉伸主 导的裂纹萌生、扩展及破坏的多轴疲劳问题，给出了一个基于临界面方法的能量型高温多轴 疲劳寿命预测模型. 所给出的模型可对不同温度、不同载荷特点、不同保载时间的多轴疲劳 寿命进行预测，模型的材料参数不依赖于温度和载荷. 并且此方法可以很方便地推广到其它 因素主导破坏的高温多轴疲劳寿命预测. 通过拟合高温合金Udimet720Li单轴带保持时间的 低循环疲劳(low cycle fatigue, LCF)寿命试验数据，得到了材料常数. 结合黏 塑性有限元分析方法，对高温双轴带保载循环载荷下Cruciform试件的寿命进行了 预测，预测结果基本落在2倍分散带内，达到工程的要求，证明了该模型的有效性.     

Fatigue-induced reversible/irreversible structural-transformations in a Ni-based superalloy

Cyclic loading and the subsequent fatigue-induced structural transformations have been investigated with in-situ neutron diffraction and thermal characterization for a single-phase, polycrystal nickel-based alloy. The lattice-strain evolution is compared with bulk parameters, such as the applied stress and thermal response as a function of the fatigue cycles. In-situ neutron-diffraction and temperature-evolution measurements identify the development of different stages in the fatigue-induced structural transformations, such as bulk hardening, softening, and eventual saturation. An increase in the dislocation density and the formation of planar-patterned dislocation structures are responsible for hardening during the early cycles. With further cyclic loading, the rearrangement of the dislocations results in cyclic softening. A transition is observed during the saturation cycles, which is characterized by the emergence of lattice-strain asymmetry in the loading and transverse directions. The dislocation density and dislocations-wall spacing are determined with diffraction-profile analyses and complemented by transmission-electron microscopy. The thermal behavior of the sample during deformation correlates with corresponding in-situ observation of the time-dependent dislocation structure. An anomaly during saturation cycles is believed to arise from dislocation self-organization – possibly during the formation of microcracks.     

Size effects and idealized dislocation microstructure at small scales: Predictions of a Phenomenological model of Mesoscopic Field Dislocation Mechanics: Part I

A Phenomenological Mesoscopic Field Dislocation Mechanics (PMFDM) model is developed, extending continuum plasticity theory for studying initial-boundary value problems of small-scale plasticity. PMFDM results from an elementary space-time averaging of the equations of Field Dislocation Mechanics (FDM), followed by a closure assumption from any strain-gradient plasticity model that attempts to account for effects of geometrically necessary dislocations (GNDs) only in work hardening. The specific lower-order gradient plasticity model chosen to substantiate this work requires one additional material parameter compared to its conventional continuum plasticity counterpart. The further addition of dislocation mechanics requires no additional material parameters. The model (a) retains the constitutive dependence of the free-energy only on elastic strain as in conventional continuum plasticity with no explicit dependence on dislocation density, (b) does not require higher-order stresses, and (c) does not require a constitutive specification of a ‘back-stress’ in the expression for average dislocation velocity/plastic strain rate. However, long-range stress effects of average dislocation distributions are predicted by the model in a mechanistically rigorous sense. Plausible boundary conditions (with obvious implication for corresponding interface conditions) are discussed in some detail from a physical point of view. Energetic and dissipative aspects of the model are also discussed. The developed framework is a continuous-time model of averaged dislocation plasticity, without having to rely on the notion of incremental work functions, their convexity properties, or their minimization. The tangent modulus relating stress rate and total strain rate in the model is the positive-definite tensor of linear elasticity, and this is not an impediment to the development of idealized microstructure in the theory and computations, even when such a convexity property is preserved in a computational scheme. A model of finite deformation, mesoscopic single crystal plasticity is also presented, motivated by the above considerations.Lower-order gradient plasticity appears as a constitutive limit of PMFDM, and the development suggests a plausible boundary condition on the plastic strain rate for this limit that is appropriate for the modeling of constrained plastic flow in three-dimensional situations.