Self-induced sound generation by flow over perforated duct liners

An adverse “singing” phenomenon due to flow over perforated liners in a duct was studied experimentally. The liners consisted of honeycomb structures bonded to and sandwiched between two flat aluminum skins. The inner skin in contact with the flow had holes (perforations) with pitch distances either equal to or different from those of the honeycomb structures, forming, respectively, narrow-band or broadband liners. The shedding of vortices in the flow over these holes induced excitation of acoustic modes within the duct, and under the condition whereby the cut-on frequency of an excited mode coincided with, or was very near to, the shedding frequency a very strong tone corresponding to that particular modal cut-on frequency resulted. For narrow-band liners, the “singing” phenomenon could also be induced by cavity resonance. The shedding frequency increased with increase in flow velocities and thus higher order acoustic modes were excited consecutively in a similar manner. The Strouhal number calculated from the observed shedding frequency and the flow velocity was found to vary directly with the hole diameter of the perforate. The high signal to noise ratio during the peak of self-excitation presents a new method in the determination of the wall admittance under the flow conditions.     

ON THE ACOUSTIC ABSORPTION OF MULTI-LAYER ABSORBERS WITH DIFFERENT INNER STRUCTURES

A rigorous finite element analysis procedure is developed to study the effect of the inner structures on the acoustic absorption of multi-layer absorbers. To do this, four types of basic inner structure compartments adopted in the multi-layer absorbers are selected for analysis. These compartments are composed of porous materials inlaid with perforated plates of various shapes, say, triangle, semicircle, convex rectangle and plate shapes. As it is different from the conventional finite element analysis for the acoustic system in the literature, the perforated plates are simulated by appropriate equivalent boundary conditions, depending on their thickness, hole radius, hole pitch and porosity and the air contained in the holes. A large number of total degrees of freedom generated from meshing the air in the holes of perforated plates are thus avoided. The results reveal that the inner structures of the multi-layer absorbers will influence the acoustic absorption at some frequency bands significantly. Based on those features, the multi-layer absorber with a novel inner structure is then designed and manufactured. Both the finite element and experimental results show that its acoustic absorption would be distinctly promoted.     

Sound radiation from perforated plates

A practical engineering noise control measure that can often be used for plate-like structures is to construct them from perforates. This can dramatically reduce the sound radiation from such structures. Here, a prediction model is developed to quantify this effect. It is an extension of Laulagnet's model for the radiation from an unbaffled plate, which expresses the surface pressure difference as well as the plate velocity as a sum over plate modes. The perforation is included in terms of a continuously distributed surface impedance, which for moderately sized holes is predominantly inertial. Results show that the radiation efficiency reduces, not only as the perforation ratio increases but also as the hole size reduces for a given perforation ratio. Experimental validation is given which shows a good agreement with the predictions. An approximate formula is also proposed for the effect of perforation which corresponds well with the analytical calculations up to half the critical frequency and could be used for an engineering application to predict the noise reduction due to perforation. A model for the case of a perforated plate embedded in an equally perforated baffle is also discussed for comparison.     

Propagation of acoustic waves in a fluid-filled pipe with periodic elastic Helmholtz resonators

Helmholtz resonators are widely used to reduce noise in a fluid-filled pipe system. It is a challenge to obtain lowfrequency and broadband attenuation with a small sized cavity. In this paper, the propagation of acoustic waves in a fluid-filled pipe system with periodic elastic Helmholtz resonators is studied theoretically. The resonance frequency and sound transmission loss of one unit are analyzed to validate the correctness of simplified acoustic impedance. The band structure of infinite periodic cells and sound transmission loss of finite periodic cells are calculated by the transfer matrix method and finite element software. The effects of several parameters on band gap and sound transmission loss are probed.Further, the negative bulk modulus of periodic cells with elastic Helmholtz resonators is analyzed. Numerical results show that the acoustic propagation properties in the periodic pipe, such as low frequency, broadband sound transmission, can be improved.     

穿孔管消声器声学长度修正的理论公式

推导出穿孔管消声器声学长度修正以及共振频率的理论公式。证明了在均匀分布情况下,多小孔向膨胀腔声辐射与单个小孔向膨胀腔声辐射的声学长度修正系数是一致的。对于小孔向主管道的声辐射,根据理论公式研究了穿孔率、周向均布数以及亥姆赫兹数对声学长度修正的影响,有限元计算得出在直径比小于0.4的情况下声学长度修正系数理论公式与仿真计算结果吻合良好。并利用理论公式的性质以及仿真结果获得了实用的拟合公式,提升了穿孔管消声器在高频时共振频率的计算精度。      

Investigation of higher spanwise Helmholtz resonance modes in slender covered cavities

Cavity aeroacoustic noise is relevant for aerospace and automotive industries and widely investigated since the 1950s. Most investigations so far consider cavities where opening length and width are of similar scale. The present investigation focuses on a less investigated setup, namely cavities that resemble the door gaps of automobiles. These cavities are both slender (width much greater than length or depth) and partially covered. Furthermore they are under influence of a low Mach number flow with a relatively thick boundary layer. Under certain conditions, these gaps can produce tonal noise. The present investigation attempts to reveal the aeroacoustic mechanism of this tonal noise for higher resonance modes. Experiments have been conducted on a simplified geometry, where unsteady internal pressures have been measured at different spanwise locations. With increasing velocity, several resonance modes occur. In order to obtain higher mode shapes, the cavity acoustic response is simulated and compared with experiment. Using the frequency-filtered simulation pressure field, the higher modes shapes are retrieved. The mode shapes can be interpreted as the slender cavity self-organizing into separate Helmholtz resonators that interact with each other. Based on this, an analytical model is derived that shows good agreement with the simulations and experimental results.     

不同声强宽带噪声激励下结构参数对穿孔板消声器吸声特性影响的实验研究

高声压级激励下,由于非线性效应的存在,穿孔板消声器的吸声特性将发生改变,而改变量的大小与穿孔板的结构参数(穿孔率,孔径,板厚)密切相关。本文设计搭建了实验平台来研究结构参数的变化对穿孔板消声器的吸声特性的影响。根据实验结果发现:随着声压级的升高,由于穿孔板结构的非线性加剧,其声阻抗将发生变化,导致穿孔板消声器的吸收峰值降低,但吸收频带却拓宽了;在穿孔率一定的情况下,孔径越小的穿孔板消声器更适合低声压级环境工作;在孔径一定的情况下,穿孔率越低的穿孔板消声器也更适合低声压级环境工作。     

掠过流作用下穿孔板的声阻抗

应用三维时域数值方法研究掠过流对穿孔板声阻抗的影响。建立了掠过流作用下穿孔板声阻抗计算的计算流体动力学(CFD)模型,通过时域计算得到掠过流作用下穿孔板的声阻抗,分析结构参数和掠过流马赫数对穿孔板声阻抗的影响。根据计算结果拟合掠过流作用下穿孔板声阻抗的近似表达式,利用获得的穿孔声阻抗新公式预测穿孔管消声器的传递损失,数值预测和实验结果吻合良好。计算结果表明,掠过流对穿孔板的声阻抗和穿孔管消声器的消声性能有明显影响。     

Broadband noise reduction by circular multi-cavity mufflers operating in multimodal propagation conditions

In this study, sound propagation through a circular duct with non-locally lining is investigated both numerically and experimentally. The liner concept is based on perforated screens backed by air cavities. Dimensions of the cavity are chosen to be of the order or bigger than the wavelength so acoustic waves within the liner can propagate parallel to the duct surface. This gives rise to complex scattering mechanisms among duct modes which renders the muffler more effective over a broader frequency range. This work emanates from the Cleansky European HEXENOR project which aim is to identify the best multi-cavity muffler configuration for reduction of exhaust noise from helicopter turboshaft engines. Here, design parameters are the cavity dimensions in both longitudinal and azimuthal directions. The best cavity configuration must in addition fit weight specifications which implies that the number of walls separating each cavity should be chosen as small as possible. To achieve these objectives, the scattering matrix of the lined duct section is obtained experimentally for two specific muffler configurations operating in multimodal propagation conditions. The good agreement with numerical predictions serves to validate the perforate plate impedance model used in our calculation. Finally, given an incident acoustic pressure which is representative of typical combustion noise spectrum, the best cavity configuration achieving the maximum overall acoustic Transmission Loss is selected numerically. The study also illustrates how the acoustic performances are dependent on the nature of the incident field.     

基于低频吸声超构材料的复合消声器研究*

针对管道内低频噪声难以抑制的问题，本文基于亥姆霍兹共振腔（HR）阵列吸声板和穿孔管消声器组合，设计了一种复合式宽带消声器。首先利用有限元法仿真分析传统穿孔管消声器，发现中低频消声能力较差，通过嵌入HR阵列吸声板吸收中低频噪声。采用仿真与实验的方式研究吸声板的声学性能：在400-1000 Hz频段内的平均吸声系数达到了0.88。然后对复合式消声器进行数值模拟及3D打印阻抗管实验测试对比：复合式消声器在400-1718Hz频率范围内的平均传递损失为18.15 dB ，最终实现了管道内全频带噪声有效控制。     

Numerical analysis of tonal airfoil self-noise and acoustic feedback-loops

In this study the role of acoustic feedback instabilities in the tonal airfoil self-noise phenomenon is investigated. First, direct numerical simulations are conducted of the flow around a NACA-0012 airfoil at Re=1×10⁵ and four angles of attack. At the two lowest angles of attack considered the airfoil self-noise exhibits a clear tonal contribution, whereas at the two higher angles of attack the tonal contribution becomes less significant in comparison to the broadband noise. Classical linear stability analysis of time-averaged boundary layer profiles shows that the tonal noise occurs at a frequency significantly lower than that of the most convectively amplified instability wave. Two-dimensional linear stability analysis of the time-averaged flowfield is then performed, illustrating the presence of an acoustic feedback loop involving the airfoil trailing edge. The feedback loop is found to be unstable only for the cases where tonal self-noise is prominent, and is found to self-select a frequency almost identical to that of the tonal self-noise. The constituent mechanisms of the acoustic feedback loop are considered, which appear to explain why the preferred frequency is lower than that of the most convectively amplified instability wave.     

In-plane attenuation zone and its optimization in a plate with periodic holes

It is difficult to design a plate with wide attenuation zones in low frequency region based on Bragg scattering mechanism. A plate with periodic rhombic holes is optimized and designed. Based on the finite element method under periodic boundary conditions, the in-plane dispersion curves of periodically perforated plate are calculated via COMSOL. The frequency responses of periodically perforated plate axe investigated via ANSYS simulation. The plates with periodic holes are suspended and dynamically tested under sinusoidal excitations. The results show that a periodically perforated plate with rhombus holes has wider attenuation zones than plates with circular and hexagonal holes. Material properties have a great influence on attenuation zones: nitrile-butadiene rubber and silicon rubber can easily obtain low-frequency zones, while increasing porosity creates lower and wider zones. The width of attenuation zone increases as the horizontal angle of the rhombus holes increases. An analysis of the attenuation zones* generation mechanism shows that the plate with periodic holes exhibits characteristics of Bragg scattering and local resonant phononic crystal, indicating an inherent relationship between two types of mechanisms. The optimized plate has a complete attenuation zone ranging from 5281.76-8824.30 Hz. The vibrations are significantly reduced when the number of periods is no less than two. The attenuation range obtained via the numerical method is generally consistent with the experiment. The research sheds light on the noise insulation plate and has the potential to improve the sound environment in various applications due to its simple manufacturing.     

The impact of the neck material on the sound absorption performance of Helmholtz resonators

Helmholtz resonators with sound absorption materials filling the neck may have an improved sound absorption capacity. In this work, parallel perforated ceramics with different perforation diameters were installed into the neck of a Helmholtz resonator to improve its acoustic impedance to simultaneously achieve a better acoustic absorption coefficient and a wider absorption bandwidth. An experimental system was built to investigate the effect of the perforation diameters on the sound absorption performance of the resonator. It is found that nonlinear effects near the resonance frequency affect the resonator?s neck mouth impedance and further its sound absorption performance significantly. For frequency range 50–500 Hz, a model of the neck mouth impedance is developed based on a revised Forchheimer relationship. The experimental results are in good agreement with the theoretical model.     

Acoustic characteristics of chamfered Hartmann whistles

Experimental studies are conducted to investigate the effect of internal chamfer at the mouth of Hartmann resonators. Studies involve a range of nozzle pressure ratios from 4 to 6, and chamfer angles 15°, 30°, and 45°. Further, the effects of cavity length and stand-off distance are also considered. The spectra, directivity, and acoustic power characteristics are studied in detail. Detailed numerical simulations are carried out to capture the flow oscillations inside as well as at the outside of the mouth of the chamfered cavities. Computations show flow diversion in chamfered cavities and explain the shift in the directivity observed experimentally. The fundamental frequency of cavities with 15° and 30° chamfers is observed to be higher than that of regular cavities. Resonance is intensified by the presence of chamfer resulting in higher overall sound pressure levels of chamfered whistles. Thus, chamfered Hartmann whistles are found to emit more than twice the acoustic power of a regular cylindrical whistle. The tonal quality of sound is analyzed using a new metric termed as “resonance index”.     

Flexural wave suppression by an acoustic metamaterial plate

A new acoustic metamaterial plate is presented for the purpose of suppressing flexural wave propagation. The metamaterial unit cell is made of a plate with a lateral local resonance (LLR) substructure which consists of a four-link mechanism, two lateral resonators and a vertical spring. The substructure presents negative Young’s modulus property in certain frequency range. We show theoretically and numerically that two large low-frequency band gaps are obtained with different formation mechanisms. The first band gap is due to the elastic connection with the foundation while the second is induced by the lateral resonances. Besides, four-link mechanisms can transform the flexural wave into the longitudinal vibration which stimulates the lateral resonators to vibrate and to generate inertial forces for absorbing the energy and thus preventing the wave propagation. Frequency response function shows that damping from the vertical spring has little influence on the band gaps, although the damping can smooth the variation of frequency response (see the dotted line in Figs. 10 and 11). Increasing the damping of the lateral resonators may broaden the second band gap but deactivate its effect. This study provides guidance for flexibly tailoring the band characteristics of the metamaterial plate in noise and vibration controls.     

Tunable acoustic radiation pattern assisted by effective impedance boundary

The acoustic wave propagation from a two-dimensional subwavelength slit surrounded by metal plates decorated with Helmholtz resonators(HRs) is investigated both numerically and experimentally in this work. Owing to the presence of HRs, the effective impedance of metal surface boundary can be manipulated. By optimizing the distribution of HRs,the asymmetric effective impedance boundary will be obtained, which contributes to generating tunable acoustic radiation pattern such as directional acoustic beaming. These dipole-like radiation patterns have high radiation efficiency, no fingerprint of sidelobes, and a wide tunable range of the radiation pattern directivity angle which can be steered by the spatial displacements of HRs.     

Periodic shunted arrays for the control of noise radiation in an enclosure

This work presents numerical and experimental investigations of the application of a periodic array of resistive-inductive (RL) shunted piezoelectric patches for the attenuation of broadband noise radiated by a flexible plate in an enclosed cavity. A 4×4 lay-out of piezoelectric patches is bonded to the surface of a rectangular plate fully clamped to the top face of a rectangular cavity. Each piezo-patch is shunted through a single RL circuit, and all shunting circuits are tuned at the same frequency. The response of the resulting periodic structure is characterized by frequency bandgaps where vibrations and associated noise are strongly attenuated. The location and extent of induced bandgaps are predicted by the application of Bloch theorem on a unit cell of the periodic assembly, and they are controlled by proper selection of the shunting circuit impedance. A coupled piezo-structural-acoustic finite element model is developed to evaluate the noise reduction performance. Strong attenuation of multiple panel-controlled modes is observed over broad frequency bands. The proposed concept is tested on an aluminum plate mounted in a wooden box and driven by a shaker. Experimental results are presented in terms of pressure responses recorded using a grid of microphones placed inside the acoustic box.     

Noise control of an acoustic enclosure covered by a double-wall structure with shallow gap: Design of resonator-like cavities

The present study addresses the possibility of using resonator-like cavities for noise attenuation of an acoustic enclosure covered by a double-wall structure with shallow gap. Different from the conventional design of using Helmholtz resonators, a set of coupled equation describing resonator-like cavity is integrated into the vibro-acoustic model, under which the modes in a broad frequency range will be controlled. Based on the tuned weighting coefficient and the acoustic potential energy, an objective function is developed to optimize parameters (number and location) of resonator-like cavities. The effect of shallow gap on the first two dominant modes of the coupled system and energy transmission is investigated. Simulation results indicate the effectiveness of the proposed method for noise attenuation, which might be of direct benefit to engineering applications.     

Hybrid phononic crystal plates for lowering and widening acoustic band gaps

We propose hybrid phononic-crystal plates which are composed of periodic stepped pillars and periodic holes to lower and widen acoustic band gaps. The acoustic waves scattered simultaneously by the pillars and holes in a relevant frequency range can generate low and wide acoustic forbidden bands. We introduce an alternative double-sided arrangement of the periodic stepped pillars for an enlarged pillars’ head diameter in the hybrid structure and optimize the hole diameter to further lower and widen the acoustic band gaps. The lowering and widening effects are simultaneously achieved by reducing the frequencies of locally resonant pillar modes and prohibiting suitable frequency bands of propagating plate modes.     

均匀流直通穿孔消声器的声学特性分析

将数值模态匹配法(NMM)扩展应用于计算有均匀流存在时直通穿孔管抗性和阻性消声器的声学特性,编写了相应的计算程序。对于圆形同轴穿孔管抗性和阻性消声器,应用数值模态匹配法计算得到的传递损失结果与实验测量结果吻合良好,从而验证了计算方法和计算程序的正确性。进而应用数值模态匹配法研究了运流效应和穿孔阻抗以及穿孔管偏移对穿孔管抗性和阻性消声器传递损失的影响。研究结果表明,马赫数越高,穿孔管抗性消声器在中高频的消声量越高,阻性消声器在整体频段内的消声性能越差;低马赫数时运流效应对穿孔管抗性消声器的影响可以忽略,马赫数较高时运流效应和穿孔阻抗的影响比较明显;对于穿孔管阻性消声器,穿孔阻抗对消声器声学特性的影响比运流效应的影响小,但是与真实值的差别不可忽略;穿孔管偏移对消声器声学特性的影响与频率和消声器结构均相关。