A micromechanical study of residual stress and its effect on transverse failure in polymer–matrix composites

Cure residual stress and its effect on damage in unidirectional fibre-reinforced polymer–matrix composites under transverse loading were studied using a micromechanical unit cell model and the finite element method. The overall residual stress introduced from curing was determined by considering two contributions: volume shrinkage of matrix resin from the crosslink polymerization during isothermal curing and thermal contraction of both resin and fibre as a result of cooling from the curing temperature to room temperature. To examine the effect of residual stress on failure, a model based on the Maximum Principal Stress criterion and stiffness degradation technique was used for damage analysis of the unit cell subjected to mechanical loading after curing. Predicted damage initiation and evolution are clearly influenced by the inclusion of residual stress. Residual stress is always detrimental for transverse compressive loading and pure shear loading. For transverse tensile loading, residual stress is detrimental for relatively low resin strength and beneficial for relatively high resin strength. Failure envelopes were obtained for both biaxial normal loading and combined shear and normal loading and the results show that residual stress results in a shifting and contraction of the failure envelopes.     

三维编织复合材料渐进损伤的非线性模型及强度分析

建立了考虑周期性位移边界条件的细观体胞模型,对三维编织复合材料的渐进损伤过程进行数值模拟。采用Eshelby-Mori—Tanaka方法计算含损伤裂纹的材料的剐度矩阵,并将有限元网格尺寸和单元裂纹尺寸引入损伤演化方程,有效地降低了模拟结果对有限元网格的依赖程度。通过计算得到了材料应力应变的非线性关系和失效时的极限强度,并分析了材料的破坏机理。结果表明,大编织角材料的破坏模式主要是基体失效与纤维横向拉剪破坏,模拟计算结果与文献中的实验值吻合较好。     

碳纤维复合材料冲击模型率相关修正方法与试验研究

目前先进航空发动机的风扇叶片均采用复合材料结构,为了研究其在工作过程中可能受到的冲击损伤,即碳纤维增强树脂基复合材料受到高速冲击后的损伤与破坏过程,对其准静态下的正交各向异性本构模型和失效准则进行修正,建立了应变率相关的三维动态本构及损伤模型．该模型考虑了材料模量、强度和断裂韧性与应变率的相关性,并采用基于断裂韧性的渐进损伤模式对刚度进行折减来控制破坏过程．开展了不同应变率下的动态试验,得到基体方向拉伸与剪切的动态响应数据,拟合得到相应的动态修正因子．将该模型结合修正因子植入数值软件进行仿真计算,分析结果表明,所建立的率相关本构及损伤模型能够更准确地模拟层合板受冲击过程的损伤和破坏,与试验吻合较好．     

纤维/金属网增强层板低速冲击损伤机理和演化

本文首先通过落锤低速冲击实验测试了纯玻璃纤维增强环氧树脂复合材料和304不锈钢丝网(SSWM)/玻璃纤维混杂复合材料的力学性能,探究了SSWM嵌入数量对混杂复合材料抗冲击性能的影响．随后采用Abaqus有限元软件建立了混杂复合材料的低速冲击模型,分别采用三维Hashin失效准则和Jason-Cook破坏准则模拟了纤维/基体和SSWM的损伤;建立了基于表面接触的内聚力模型来模拟界面分层;编写了VUMAT用户子程序定义混杂复合材料层合板的渐进失效过程．结果表明：相较于纯玻璃纤维增强环氧树脂层合板,SSWM/玻璃纤维混杂增强环氧树脂层合板的抗冲击性能更优,其中铺层形式为铺层III的混杂复合材料抗冲击性能最佳．通过对比发现有限元仿真结果与实验结果吻合良好,表明建立的模型适用于SSWM/玻璃纤维混杂增强环氧树脂复合材料低速冲击损伤的评估．通过分析仿真结果发现混杂复合材料的低速冲击损伤主要是冲击区域的纤维断裂、基体破坏和层间分层;SSWM通过吸收和传递冲击能量从而提升了混杂复合材料的抗冲击性能．     

Response of 3-D and Plain-Weave S-2 Glass Composites in Out-of-Plane Tension and Shear

An extensive suite of experiments was conducted to characterize the mechanical response of an S-2 glass composite. The primary interest was the response of a 3-D composite, consisting of unidirectional (non-woven) layers of glass fibers interlaced by through-thickness Z-yarns. A plain-weave material was also characterized for comparison purposes. Additionally, epoxy-only specimens were fabricated to assist in understanding the contribution of the SC-15 epoxy resin in the response of the composite system. Two new specimen geometries (torsion and hourglass) were developed specifically for this characterization effort. The response of these specimens provides considerable insight into the failure mechanics of the plain weave and 3-D weave composites. It was shown that the matrix material has an elastic-plastic response, but with different strengths in tension and torsion. The response of the composite in tension is controlled by the epoxy until failure at the glass-resin interface. The strength falls to zero for the plain-weave composite, but the Z-yarns can support tensile stress until the yarns begin to fail. The fibers contribute to the elastic stiffness in shear for the plain-weave material, but the failure strength in shear is the same as the matrix. The 3-D weave composite also fails at the failure strength of the matrix, but retains some shear strength because of the Z-yarns.     

点阵增强型复合材料夹层结构的力学性能实验与分析

采用真空导入成型工艺,制备出在面板与芯材界面上具有创新构型的点阵增强型复合材料夹层结构。对其面板拉伸性能、夹层结构剪切与平压性能进行了实验研究,得出点阵增强型复合材料夹层结构经树脂柱增强后,剪切与平压性能均得以提高的结论。对不同跨高比复合材料夹层结构开展了三点与四点弯曲实验,研究其典型受力破坏形态与机理。基于Eshelby等效夹杂原理,采用Mori-Tanaka方法求解了点阵增强型复合材料夹层结构经树脂柱增强后的剪切性能。利用经典夹层梁理论和非线性有限元模拟方法,预估了试件抗弯刚度与受弯极限承载力,理论分析与实验结果较吻合。     

平纹编织陶瓷基复合材料面内剪切细观损伤行为研究

采用约西佩斯库(Iosipescu)纯剪切试件,研究了平纹编织SiC/SiC和C/SiC复合材料的面内剪切应力-应变行为和细观损伤特性.通过试验获得了材料不同方向上的单调和迟滞应力-应变行为,对比分析了两种材料的剪切损伤特性,结果表明材料的剪切损伤演化规律受热残余应力水平影响严重.由试件断口电镜扫描结果发现剪切加载状态下桥连纤维承受显著的弯曲载荷和变形,据此提出了纤维弯曲承载机制,并结合裂纹闭合效应分阶段阐释了材料的剪切迟滞环形状.基于材料的剪切细观损伤机制,通过两个损伤变量表征了材料的剪切损伤演化进程,得到了材料的面内剪切细观损伤演化模型.对比发现2D-C/SiC复合材料45°方向基体裂纹的起裂应力明显小于2D-SiC/SiC复合材料,而两者0°/90°方向裂纹的起裂应力基本相同.      

A failure criterion for fiber reinforced polymer composites under combined compression–torsion loading

A fracture mechanics based failure criterion for unidirectional composites under combined loading has been developed. The predictions from this criterion have been compared with experimental data obtained from combined compression–torsion loading of glass and carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites of 50% fiber volume fraction. The specimens were loaded under rotation control and displacement control in a proportional manner. Comparison of the Budiansky–Fleck kinking model, specialized to a solid circular cylinder, and the new failure model against experimental data suggests that the Budiansky–Fleck model predictions do not capture the variation of compressive strength as a function of shear stress for glass fiber composites. This is because these composites fail predominantly by compressive splitting. The Budiansky–Fleck model predictions are appropriate for composites that fail by compressive kinking. The new model predictions capture the experimental results for glass composites where the compression strength is initially unaffected by shear stress but undergoes a drastic reduction when a critical value of shear stress is reached.     

压剪复合平板冲击加载技术进展及其应用

自20世纪70年代末发明压剪炮以来, 压剪复合冲击加载实验技术和诊断技术有了长足进展, 应用也日益广泛.由于压剪联合加载波直接反映了材料的动态剪切特性, 对于认识材料的屈服、损伤演化、失效、相变、界面滑移等动态行为和机理, 构筑更全面的本构模型能够提供必要的附加信息.本文主要讨论气炮实验中压剪复合应力波的产生方式, 诊断技术, 以及在压剪复合塑性波和动高压本构模型、聚合物压剪冲击行为、剪切波跟踪法(SWT)和水泥基复合材料的损伤和失效、界面动摩擦行为、冲击相变、动态损伤和断裂等方面的研究与应用进展.      

The microbuckling failure of Dyneema~? composites under compression

Two grades of Dyneema~?composite laminates with the commercial designations of HB26 and HB50 were cut into blocks with or without an edge crack and compressed in the longitudinal fiber direction. The cracked and uncracked specimens show similar compressive responses including failure pattern and failure load. The two grades of Dyneema~? composites exhibits different failure modes: a diffuse, sinusoidal buckling pattern for Dyneema~? HB50 due to its weak matrix constituent and a kink band for Dyneema~? HB26 due to its relatively stronger matrix constituent. An effective finite element model is used to simulate the collapse of Dyneema~? composites, and the sensitivity of laminate compressive responses to the overall effective shear modulus, interlaminar shear strength, thickness and imperfection angle are investigated. The change of failure mode from kink band to sinusoidal buckling pattern by decreasing the interlaminar shear strength is validated by the finite element analyses.     

基于红外热成像的编织复合材料低速冲击和冲击后压缩试验研究

针对二维三轴编织复合材料（two-dimensional triaxially braided composite, 2DTBC）在低速冲击和冲击后压缩（compression after impact, CAI）载荷下的损伤失效机理,开展了2DTBC试样的不同能量低速冲击试验以及相应的CAI试验,并采用红外热像仪监测在低速冲击和CAI试验过程中的温升现象。通过C扫描表征了不同能量低速冲击后试样的分层损伤情况,讨论了试样背面温度场分布特性及其随冲击能量的演化规律;对比分析了2DTBC冲击后剩余压缩强度与冲击能量的对应关系,基于数字图像相关（digital image correlation, DIC）技术监测了CAI试验中的全局应变场,结合热成像、变形场和光学图像数据,阐明了不同能量冲击后2DTBC的压缩失效特性,讨论了基于红外热成像技术表征编织复合材料损伤失效行为的有效性。试验结果显示:编织复合材料低速冲击和CAI试验中的温度场分布图与编织几何构型有明显关联度;低速冲击试验的温升幅值随冲击能量的增加而快速上升,CAI试验的温升现象随着冲击能量的增加而减弱;分层面积随冲击能量的增大而增大,冲击后剩余压缩强度随冲击能量的增大而降低。研究结果表明:红外热成像技术能够很好地捕捉试样破坏瞬间释放断裂能所产生的温升现象,温度场图像相较于全局应变场能更好地捕捉破坏的起始位置和失效特征。     

圆柱形爆炸容器绝热剪切瞬态失效过程

开展了圆柱形爆炸容器逐级加载和破坏实验,根据容器最终的断裂面和微观形貌观测,提出了爆炸容器绝热剪切失效模式.建立了应变率-应变空间内的绝热剪切损伤演化模型,将绝热剪切不同演化阶段的临界状态与宏观的力学条件联系起来,并将这些力学临界条件作为动态失效准则引入到宏观计算程序中,模拟爆炸容器发生绝热剪切的的瞬态过程,模拟结果成...     

Numerical analysis of the compressive and shear failure behavior of rock containing multi-intermittent joints

The failure behavior of intermittent jointed rocks is dependent on joint configurations. Joint inclination angle and continuity factor determined the joint arrangement in a rectangular numerical sample that was established by using the particle flow code approach. To identify the differences in the failure processes of identical intermittent jointed samples, uniaxial compressive and shear loads were applied on each sample. The crack growth path presented the four typical crack coalescence patterns identified via compressive and shear numerical tests. The crack coalescence pattern was associated with joint slant angle and continuity factor. The observed crack coalescence patterns of every sample with the same inclination angle and continuity factor were partially identical under compressive and shear loading. The differences in the crack patterns of the compressive and shear failure processes were described and compared. Typical compressive and shear failure processes were illustrated. Four compressive and three shear failure modes were identified. The cracking location and number of cracks in each failure mode were different. Additionally, the contact force evolution among particles during shear and compressive loading was different and likely accounted for the differences in cracking patterns. Under compressive or shear loading, the contact force concentration in each sample underwent the following stages: uniform distribution before loading, concentrated distribution, and scattered distribution after failure.     

纤维增强陶瓷基复合材料的D失效判据

经典唯象强度理论适用于正交各向异性线弹性体。对于非线性纤维增强复合材料,通过加卸载试验和损伤力学的分析方法,可以得到一种虚拟的线性化应力-应变关系;依据损伤等效假设,针对线性损伤和非线性损伤,对基于应力的经典二次失效准则进行变换,建立了一种基于损伤的强度理论,即“D失效判据”,这一强度理论可以作为经典判据的补充和扩展。针对平纹编织C/SiC复合材料的拉/剪组合试验,进行了实例计算,结果表明：利用D失效判据预测的失效包络线比蔡-希尔准则的预测曲线低,而且,失效曲线的形式与材料的损伤演化规律相关。     

Influence of the loading path on the strength of fiber-reinforced composites subjected to transverse compression and shear

The influence of the loading path on the failure locus of a composite lamina subjected to transverse compression and out-of-plane shear is analyzed through computational micromechanics. This is carried out using the finite element simulation of a representative volume element of the microstructure, which takes into account explicitly fiber and matrix spatial distribution within the lamina. In addition, the actual failure mechanisms (plastic deformation of the matrix and interface decohesion) are included in the simulations through the corresponding constitutive models. Two different interface strength values were chosen to explore the limiting cases of composites with strong or weak interfaces. It was found that failure locus was independent of the loading path for the three cases analyzed (pseudo-radial, compression followed by shear and shear followed by compression) in the composites with strong and weak interfaces. This result was attributed to the fact that the dominant failure mechanism in each material was the same in transverse compression and in shear. Failure is also controlled by the same mechanisms under a combination of both stresses and the failure locus depended mainly on the magnitude of the stresses that trigger fracture rather than in the loading path to reach the critical condition.     

Buckling of nano-fibre reinforced composites: a re-examination of elastic buckling

Elastic buckling of layered/fibre reinforced composites is investigated. Assuming the existence of both shear and transverse modes of failure, the fibre is analysed as a layer embedded in a matrix. Interacting stresses, acting at the interfaces are determined from an exact derived stress field in the matrix. It is shown that buckling can occur only in the shear buckling mode and that the transverse buckling mode is spurious. As opposed to the well known Rosen shear buckling mode solution (predicated on an infinite buckling wavelength), shear buckling is shown to exist under two régimes: buckling of dilute composites with finite wavelengths and buckling of non-dilute composites with infinite wavelengths. Based on the analysis, a model is constructed which defines the fibre concentration at which the transition between the two régimes occurs. The buckling strains are shown to be (approximately) constant for dilute composites and, in the case of very stiff fibres, to have realistic values compatible with elastic behaviour. For the case of non-dilute composites, the strains are found to be in agreement with those given by the Rosen shear buckling solution. Numerical results for the buckling strains and stresses are presented and compared with the Rosen solution. These reveal that the Rosen solution is valid only for the case of non-dilute composites. The investigation demonstrates that elastic buckling may be a dominant failure mechanism of composites consisting of very stiff fibres fabricated in the framework of nano-technology.     

不同加载状态下TA2钛合金绝热剪切破坏响应特性

一般认为绝热剪切现象在宏观上表现为材料动态本构失稳,即热软化大于应变硬化.本文采用帽型受迫剪切试样研究TA2钛合金的动态力学特性和本构失稳过程.首先对剪切区加载应力状态进行理论和数值分析,通过合理设计帽型试样,剪切区变形可近似按剪切状态处理;结合二维数字图像相关法(two-dimensional digital image correlation,DIC-2D)直接测试试样剪切区应变演化,给出帽型受迫剪切实验的等效应力-应变响应曲线.进一步,利用Hopkinson压杆对TA2钛合金开展动态压缩及帽型剪切对比试验研究,比较压缩、剪切试验得到的等效应力-应变曲线,采用"冻结"试样方法分析试样中绝热剪切局域化演化过程,探讨不同加载状态下TA2钛合金的绝热剪切破坏现象及其动态力学响应特性.实验结果表明,在塑性变形初始阶段,动态压缩及剪切加载下的等效应力-应变曲线符合较好,但随塑性损伤发展及绝热剪切带形成,两者出现分离,表明损伤及绝热剪切演化过程与应力状态相关.剪切试样实验得到的本构"软化"特性能够反映绝热剪切带起始、破坏演化过程的力学响应特性,而在动态压缩实验中,即使试样中已出现双锥形的绝热剪切带及局部裂纹分布,其表观等效应力-应变曲线并不出现软化特征,动态压缩实验无法得到关于绝热剪切起始、发展以及破坏的本构软化响应特性.     

A periodic unit-cell simulation of fiber arrangement dependence on the transverse tensile failure in unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced composites

The effect of fiber arrangement on transverse tensile failure in unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced composites with a strong fiber-matrix interface was studied using a unit-cell model that includes a continuum damage mechanics model. The simulated results indicated that tensile strength is lower when neighboring fibers are arrayed parallel to the loading direction than with other fiber arrangements. A shear band occurs between neighboring fibers, and the damage in the matrix propagates around the shear band when the interfacial normal stress (INS) is sufficiently high. Moreover, based on the observation of Hobbiebrunken et al., we reproduced the damage process in actual composites with a nonuniform fiber arrangement. The simulated results clarified that the region where neighboring fibers are arrayed parallel to the loading direction becomes the origin of the transverse failure in the composites. The cracking sites observed in the simulation are consistent with experimental results. Therefore, the matrix damage in the region where the fiber is arrayed parallel to the loading direction is a key factor in understanding transverse failure in unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced composites with a strong fiber/matrix interface.     

Multi-scale Mechanical Characterization of Palmetto Wood using Digital Image Correlation to Develop a Template for Biologically-Inspired Polymer Composites

Palmetto wood is garnering growing interest as a template for creating biologically-inspired polymer composites due to its historical use as an energy absorbing material in protective structures. In this study, quasi-static three-point bend tests have been performed to characterize the mechanical behavior of Palmetto wood. Full-field deformation measurements are obtained using Digital Image Correlation (DIC) to elucidate on the strain fields associated with the mechanical response. By analyzing strain fields at multiple length scales, it is possible to study the more homogeneous mechanical behavior at the macro-scale associated with the global load-deformation response; while at the microscale the mechanical behavior is more inhomogeneous due to microstructural failure mechanisms. Thus, it was possible to determine that, despite the presence of discontinuous macro-fiber reinforcement, at the macro-scale the response is associated with classical bending and progressive failure processes that are adequately described by Weibull statistics proceeding from the tensile side of the specimen. At the microscale, however, the failure mechanisms giving rise to the macroscopic response consist of both shear-dominated debonding between the fiber and matrix, and inter-fiber matrix failure due to pore collapse. These microscale mechanisms are present in both the compressive and tensile regions of the specimen, most likely due to local macro-fiber bending, which is independent of the global bending state. The pore collapse mechanism observed during mechanical loading appears to improve the energy absorption of the matrix material, thereby, transferring less energy and shear strain to the macro-fiber-matrix interface for initiation of debonding. However, the pore collapse mechanism can also accumulate substantial shear strain, which results in matrix shear cracking. Through these complex failure mechanisms, Palmetto wood exhibits a high resistance to catastrophic failure after damage initiation, an observation that can be used as inspiration for creating new polymer composite materials.     

Transient shear rheology of carbon nanofiber/polystyrene melt composites

We characterize the transient shear rheology of polystyrene/carbon nanofiber composites. Our experimental measurements of the composites show increasing stress overshoot responses to transient shear as the carbon nanofiber concentration increases. We also find the steady state viscosity reached at long times during application of a constant shear rate increases with increasing carbon nanofiber concentration. Flow reversal experiments show the effects of nanofiber orientation and structural evolution on the composite's rheological response.We present a microstructurally based constitutive model where all but two parameters are determined by rheological characterization of the pure polymer and the shape and concentration of the nanoparticles. The Folgar-Tucker constant, C_I, is treated as a fitting parameter, while several definitions for the shape factors A, B, C and F are evaluated. We make note of the effects each parameter has on the model's predictions. We find that the constitutive model is in agreement with our experimentally measured transient shear rheology of the PS/CNF melt composites for the CNF concentrations and shear rates presented.