Absorption and Scattering of Light by Highly Concentrated Two‐phase Flows

The spray cone emerging during an extended metal atomization process (called spray forming) has been investigated in order to quantify the influence of highly concentrated multiphase flows on phase‐Doppler‐anemometry (PDA) measurements. Using this non‐intrusive, optical measurement technique not only the local particle size and velocity distributions of the spray can be obtained but also additional information about the mass flux in the multiphase flow. Since standard phase‐Doppler systems can be easily applied to low concentrated particle systems (spherical particles with smooth surfaces and an optical transparent continuous phase taken for granted) the application of this measurement technique to highly concentrated multiphase flows is more complex. Both the laser light propagating from the PDA device to the probe volume and the scattered one going backward to the PDA receiving system are disturbed by passing the highly concentrated multiphase flow. The resulting significant loss in signal quality especially concerns the measurement of the smaller particles of the spray because of their reduced silhouette (in comparison with the bigger ones). Thus, the detection of the smallest particles becomes partially impossible leading to measurement of a distorted diameter distribution of the entire particle collective. In this study the distortions of the measured distributions dependent on the particle number concentration as well as on the path length of the laser light are discussed.     

Phase-Doppler Anemometry with the Dual Burst Technique for measurement of refractive index and absorption coefficient simultaneously with size and velocity

The principle of the dual burst technique (DBT) based on phase-Doppler anemometry (PDA) is proposed for simultaneous particle refractive index, size and velocity measurements. This technique used the trajectory effects in PDA systems to separate the two contributions of the different scattering processes. In the case of forward scattering and refracting particles, it is shown that from the phase of the reflected contribution, the particle diameter can be deduced, whereas from the refracted contribution the particle refractive index and velocity can be obtained. Furthermore, the intensity ratio of these two scattering processes can be used for absorption measurements. Simulations based on generalized Lorenz-Mie theory and experimental tests using monodispersed droplets of different refractive indices and absorption coefficients have validated this technique.     

Investigation of the Flow Field in the Upper Part of a Cyclone with Laser and Phase Doppler Anemometry

The cyclone is a well known apparatus for separating particles out of a gas stream. With the modern laser diagnostic technologies of laser and phase Doppler anemometry (LDA and PDA), there is the potential to measure the flow and particle field inside the cyclone. The gas phase only measurements used micron‐sized oil seeding droplets, whereas the solid phase, chosen for the PDA particle size measurements, was limestone powder. To assess the possibility of measuring milled limestone particles with PDA, the measured size distribution was compared with those obtained by laser diffraction. The measurements inside the cyclone showed that the flow field in the upper part of the cyclone was different to that commonly thought. Therefore, the vertical height of the cyclone's vortex finder could be shortened without deterioration of the separation efficiency. The particles found in the hold‐up of the cyclone air flow were considerably larger than the average particle size in the feed pipe.     

Innovative Phase Doppler Systems and their Applications

Theoretical and practical limits on the applicability of PDA are established, using generalized theoretical formulations of various physical processes governing the operation of a phase Doppler system. Furthermore, several innovative solutions are introduced to prevent the commonly occuring problems of PDA, such as Gaussian profile effect, non-monotonic response and 2π-ambiguity. Generalized formulations have also enabled new applications, such as sizing of submicron particles, particle material recognition, measurements with non-standard geometries. Selected results of measurements in particulate flows, using innovative PDA systems, are also presented.     

Dual-Mode Phase-Doppler Anemometer

The accurate measurement of mass flux is identified as being essential for the successful use of phase-Doppler anemometry (PDA) in many applications, in particular with sprays. Thus measured sizes of individual droplets and the cross-sectional area to which the flux measurement is referenced must be reliable. This paper investigates sources of measurement error in each of these quantities and provides means to eliminates or minimize these errors. A new PDA configuration, termed dual–mode PDA, is introduced as an implementation of these suggestions. Example measurements illustrate the advantages of the system over conventional arrangements.     

Exploring PDA Configurations

This paper reviews the principle of the phase-Doppler particle sizer by means of examples of the effects of varying the various experimental parameters. The examples are computed by means of a comprehensive numerical model of a complete phase-Doppler system including many practical aspects such as aperture size, polarization filters and detector properties. First the phase-Doppler principle is explained as a logical development of an interferometric measurement of the phase of the light scattered from a particle. Then the standard phase-Doppler analyzer (PDA) is decribed followed by some newer or less known variations of the principle intended to measure, e.g., in the backscatter direction, to size very small particles or to determine the refractive index of a particle. Finally, the trajectory problem in PDA measurements is briefly discussed.     

Working Principle and Experimental Results for a Differential Phase-Doppler Technique

By replacing the two detectors of a standard phase-Doppler anemometer (PDA) with a charge coupled device (CCD) line scan sensor, the scattered light can be measured not only with high temporal but also with improved spatial resolution. Thereby, the quantity to be measured by PDA, the phase difference ΔΦ, can be determined as function of the elevation angle υ. This allows a statistical evaluation of the received signal and permits precise measurements of the size and velocity even of non-ideal solid particles with inhomogeneous composition, aspherical shape or rough surface. In this paper, the basis of data acquisition and evaluation is described. This is followed by experimental results for glass spheres with intact and defect surfaces and, for comparison, for water droplets. These results demonstrate the potential of this measuring device, described as a differential phase-Doppler anemometer (DPDA).     

Numerical study of glare spot phase Doppler anemometry

The phase Doppler anemometry has (PDA) been developed to measure simultaneously the velocity and the size of droplets. When the concentration of particles is high, tightly focused beams must be used, as in the dual burst PDA. The latter permits an access to the refractive index of the particle, but the effect of wave front curvature of the incident beams becomes evident. In this paper, we introduce a glare spot phase Doppler anemometry which uses two large beams. The images of the particle formed by the reflected and refracted light, known as glare spots, are separated in space. When a particle passes through the probe volume, the two parts in a signal obtained by a detector in forward direction are then separated in time. If two detectors are used the phase differences and the intensity ratios between two signals, the distance between the reflected and refracted spots can be obtained. These measured values provide information about the particle diameter and its refractive index, as well as its two velocity components. This paper is devoted to the numerical study of such a configuration with two theoretical models: geometrical optics and rigorous electromagnetism solution.     

用消光系数比表征火灾烟雾的分类特征

提出了一种表征火灾烟雾分类特征的方法,采用两个已知波长的消光系数的比值表征火灾烟雾的本质特征.研究表明:两个已知波长的消光系数比仅与烟雾粒子群的粒径分布、平均粒径和折射率有关,排除了烟雾粒子浓度的影响,通过对火灾烟雾进行简单的光学测量和计算,即可得到火灾烟雾的分类特征 关键词： 消光系数比 火灾烟雾 分类特征     

Combined “Fluorescence” LDV (FLDV) and PDA Technique for Non‐ambiguous Two Phase Measurements Inside the Spray of a SI‐Engine

Laser velocimetry measurements in the vicinity of reflecting surfaces are still a major problem in many fluid mechanical applications such as measuring close to walls or wall film surfaces, respectively. Moreover, in any kind of two phase flow an unambiguous separation of the gas and the liquid phase is of particular interest. Commonly used techniques like Phase Doppler Analyzers (PDA) with size discrimination are limited to two phase flows where the smallest particle of the dispersed phase is significantly larger than the seeding particles. This condition can rarely be fulfilled in technically relevant spray/air systems for instance in automobile engines or gas turbines. One of the most promising approaches to overcome this problem is a correct phase discrimination using fluorescent tracer particles for the gas phase. In this paper different laser based velocimeters have been compared using the spray of a gasoline injection nozzle as a typical example. The working principle of the “fluorescence” LDV (FLDV) will be explained in detail. Moreover, the quality of the fluorescence signals and of the standard bursts received from Mie‐scattering particles will be compared. Finally, the capabilities of combined FLDV and PDA measurements inside the spray of a SI‐engine at unsteady conditions will be presented. The pros and cons of this technique will be discussed against the background of discriminatory two phase PIV measurements applied to the same spray.     

Phase Doppler Anemometer for Measurements of Deterministic Spray Unsteadiness

A method and analysis was developed to quantify the amplitude of deterministic spray unsteadiness based on Phase Doppler Anemometry (PDA), which sampled time‐dependent droplet velocity and size measurements, in order to determine the fluctuations of droplet data rate and number density, which are quantities relevant to fluctuations of droplet concentration. The data processing method of the PDA measurements was assessed in a pulsed spray at a frequency of 20 Hz injected in a swirl‐stabilised burner. Comparisons between quantities relevant to droplet concentration fluctuations, measured by PDA and a light scattering technique, quantified the deterministic spray unsteadiness and agreed to within 15%. The developed PDA approach was applied in the swirl‐stabilised burner to measure the amplitude of deterministic spray unsteadiness of an otherwise steady spray, which was caused by the instability of the atomisation process. The intensity of deterministic fluctuations of droplet data rate and number density, occurring at a frequency range around 600 Hz due to the atomisation process, was quantified to 15% of the corresponding mean value and this spray unsteadiness generated fluctuations on the air and droplet velocity fields. The deterministic spray unsteadiness could survive up to the end of the recirculation zone of the air flow at the burner exit and, therefore, could influence flame stability.     

齿形中心扩锥对旋流燃烧器气固流动影响的PDA试验研究

1前言旋流燃烧器依靠高温回流区做为稳定的热源，使煤粉气流及时着火并稳定燃烧，燃烧器单独组织燃烧，不互相影响，燃烧器区域的气固流动特性决定了燃烧器的性能。燃烧器的喷口结构对其气因流动特性有重要影响山。本文提出了齿形中心扩锥结构（如图l所示）。2实验方法及结果分析试验采用三维激光粒子动态分析仪（简称三维PDA），实验台系统主要由送风机、吸风机、给粉机、燃烧器模型、试验段、旋风分离器等组成，试验段为一竖直放置的筒体，直径为4800mm，燃烧器模型安装在简体上部中心位置，最外层扩口端部与筒体内壁平齐，沿射流流动方…     

Transmission Fluctuation Spectrometry in Concentrated Suspensions. Part Three: Measurements

The theory of transmission fluctuation spectrometry (TFS) was developed for particle size analysis in flowing particle suspensions, whereby the statistical transmission fluctuations are used to extract the particle size distribution (PSD) and particle concentration. In the previous parts of this publication high concentration effects on TFS were investigated theoretically and by simulation. This work presents a study on TFS measurements in concentrated suspensions. By introducing an empirical correction to include the high concentration effects from both the monolayer structure and particle overlapping in the inversion algorithm, it is possible to obtain the particle size distribution and particle concentration over broad ranges of particle sizes and concentrations.     

Reconstruction of Real Size Distributions Hidden in Phase-Doppler Anemometry results obtained form droplets of inhomogeneous liquids

Real process fluids such as emulsions and suspensions are optically absordent as well as inhomogeneous. Using phase-Doppler anemometry (PDA)for investigating the spray cone, the inhomogeneites have led to incomprehensible size distributions. In this paper, solutions of instant coffee and condensed milk, representing typical process fluids, were chosen for PDA measurements in comparison with PDA applied to water droplets with the same atomization process in order to clarify the reasons for the measured broad size distributions. By applying PDA to monodisperse droplets and to “monodisperse” and real polydisperse sprays consisting of such fluids, it is shown how the measured size distributions arise, Based on this knowledge, the real size distributions are reconstructed and compared with that of water atomization. Therefore, PDA can in future also be applied to real process fluids, and process control, based on the information provided by PDA, is coming nearer.     

基于双面质点振速测量的声场分离技术

现有的声场分离技术或是基于双面声压测量或是基于单面声压和质点振速测量。本文以二维空间傅里叶变换法作为声场分离算法,提出一种基于双面质点振速测量的声场分离技术。论文首先推导出了该方法的理论模型,随后通过仿真研究验证了该方法的有效性,并通过与基于双面声压测量的声场分离方法的比较说明了其优越性。结果表明:采用基于双面质点振速测量的声场分离方法可以有效实现声场分离;基于双面质点振速测量的声场分离方法可以获得更高的质点振速分离精度,而基于双面声压测量的声场分离方法可以获得更高的声压分离精度。      

On the retrieval of ice cloud particle shapes from POLDER measurements

Shapes of ice crystals can significantly affect the radiative transfer in ice clouds. The angular distribution of the polarized reflectance over ice clouds strongly depends on ice crystal shapes. Although the angular-distribution features of the total or polarized reflectance over ice clouds imply a possibility of retrieving ice cloud particle shapes by use of remote sensing data, the accuracy of the retrieval must be evaluated. In this study, a technique that applies single ice crystal habit and multidirectional polarized radiance to retrieve ice cloud particle shapes is assessed. Our sensitivity studies show that the retrieved particle shapes from this algorithm can be considered good approximations to those in actual clouds in calculation of the phase matrix elements. However, this algorithm can only work well under the following conditions: (1) the retrievable must be overcast and thick ice cloud pixels, (2) the particles in the cloud must be randomly oriented, (3) the particle shapes and size distributions used in the lookup tables must be representative, and (4) the multi-angle polarized measurements must be accurate and sufficient to identify ice cloud pixels of randomly oriented particles. In practice, these conditions will exclude most of the measured cloud pixels. Additionally, because the polarized measurements are only sensitive to the upper cloud part not deeper than an optical thickness of 4, the retrieved particle shapes with the polarized radiance may only approximate those in the upper parts of the clouds. In other words, for thicker clouds with vertical inhomogeneity in particle shapes, these retrieved particle shapes cannot represent those of whole clouds. More robust algorithm is needed in accurate retrieval of ice cloud particle shapes.     

Non‐Spherical 2‐Dimensional Particle Size Analysis from Chord Measurements using Bayes' Theorem

A method of deconvoluting 2‐dimensional particle size distributions from chord size data is presented and evaluated. This is the Probability Apportioning Method (PAM3). It assumes that the particles (or droplets) can be represented by super quadrics and are cut randomly by a sensor to give a chord measurement. Starting from an assumed uniform particle distribution, Bayes' theorem is used to calculate hit probabilities for each particle type and the population is then recalculated. The process is then repeated until there is no significant further change in the calculated distribution. Using numerical simulations PAM3 is shown to be quite accurate and robust for a number of different types of particle shapes provided there is a sufficient number of accurate measurements.     

Ultrasonic Measurement of Sub-Micron Particles

Based on technology described in a Du Pont patent for an offline system, we have developed a prototype in-line ultrasonic cell for measuring particle size distribution. We have used this cell to verify the Allegra-Hawley model of ultrasonic attenuation in dilute (< 5 % vol) slurries of sub-micron ceramic particles, and we are developing a model that can cope with the multiple scattering effects occuring at higher concentrations. In this paper we present the results of attenuation measurements for ultrasound (2–50 MHz) in slurries with concentrations ranging from 0.5 010 to 38 010 (vol). The attenuation is proportional to slurry concentration up to 5 010 (vol) and is predicted by single scattering models. Above approximately 100% concentration, the attenuation is actually lower than expected. For the dilute slurries we find excellent agreement between our measurements and the Allegra-Hawley calculations, and the effects of the particle size distribution are evident in the ultrasonic attenuation spectrum. These ultrasonic data can be inverted to determine the particle size and concentration in aqueous slurries of sub-micron particles.     

The Simulation of Phase-Doppler Anemometry by the Multiple Multipole Method

When applying phase-Doppler anemometry (PDA) to measurements of mass flux, one has to deal with errors caused by multiple scattering effects within a PDA measurement volume. Theoretical research on the influence of multiple scattering effects on PDA is more promising than experimental work, because each error source can be treated separately. Therefore, we have simulated multiple scattering effects occurring in the measurement volume by extending a method for light scattering calculations to Gaussian beams: the multiple multipole method (MMP). The current version of our computer program is able to simulate PDA with any set-up consisting of Gaussian beams, using one or more homogeneous particles with arbitrary shape and movement and two detectors at any position and with an arbitrarily shaped aperture. In this paper we have concentrated on multiple scattering effects caused by two equally sized spheres, a case which is frequently found in atomizalion.