AFM characterization of bovine enamel and dentine after acid-etching

Teeth are constituted mainly of hydroxyapatite molecules (Ca₁₀(PO₄)₆(OH)₂), grouped in different microstructural arrangements, depending on the dental layer considered (enamel or dentine). In the present work, these dental microstructural arrangements were characterized by atomic force microscopy. Enamel and dentine samples were cut from freshly extracted bovine incisor teeth. After metallographic polishing, the dental surfaces were etched with lactic acid (113.8 mmol/L, pH 3.3). Three etching times were tested: 1, 3 and 5 min. Atomic force micrographs showed that 1 min of etching time was effective to remove the smear layer, polishing debris and scratches, and display the characteristics of interest for both enamel and dentine. Although the bovine dental enamel rod cross-section presented keyhole-like shape, its measured dimensions (8.8 μm of major axis and 3.7 μm of minor axis) exhibited an insignificant discrepancy from human prisms diameters. Bovine dentinal tubules displayed larger mean diameters (4.0 μm) and a lower density (～17,100 tubules/mm²) than human dentine, suggesting that the use of bovine dentine as a substitute for human dentine in resin adhesion investigations should be reconsidered. Apatite nanoparticles presented a mean radius (22–23 nm) considerably smaller than that of human teeth.     

A Boubaker polynomials expansion scheme (BPES)-related protocol for measuring sprayed thin films thermal characteristics

Measurements of In₂S₃ and ZnIn₂S₄ sprayed thin films thermal characteristics have been carried out using the photodetection technique. The thermal conductivity k and diffusivity D were obtained using a new protocol based on photothermal signal parameters analysis. Measured values of k and D were respectively, (15.2 ± 0.85) W m⁻¹K⁻¹ and (69.8 ± 7.1) × 10⁻⁶ m²s⁻¹ for In₂S₃, (7.2 ± 0.7) W m⁻¹K⁻¹ and (32.7 ± 4.3) × 10⁻⁶ m²s⁻¹ for ZnIn₂S₄. These values are extremely important since similar compounds are more and more proposed as Cd-free alternative materials for solar cells buffer layers.     

Electrical and dielectric properties of β-BaB2O4 (BBO) and CsLiB6O10 (CLBO) crystals

In barium borate (BBO) crystals, sodium and potassium ions, inherited due to the preparation technique, are dominant charge carriers. The conductivity between layers is higher; the conductivity activation energy and the conductivity at 350 °C being equal to 1.01±0.05 eV and (1.3±0.2)×10⁻⁸ S/cm, respectively. The conductivity activation energy and the conductivity at 350 °C along the channels are equal to 1.13±0.05 eV and to (4±0.2)×10⁻⁹ S/cm, respectively. Relative static permittivity is almost isotropic, and equal to 7.65±0.05. Upon storing of cesium–lithium borate (CLBO) crystals, pre-heating to 600 °C eliminates the influence of surface humidity. At 500 K, the ionic conductivity ranges from 4×10⁻¹² to 2×10⁻¹⁰ S/cm; the conductivity activation energy ranges from 1.01 to 1.17 eV. Relative static permittivity is equal to 7.4±0.3.     

A method for rapid measurement of laser ablation rate of hard dental tissue

The aim of the study reported here is the development of a new method which allows rapid and accurate in-vitro measurements of three-dimensional (3D) shape of laser ablated craters in hard dental tissues and the determination of crater volume, ablation rate and speed. The method is based on the optical triangulation principle. A laser sheet projector illuminates the surface of a tooth, mounted on a linear translation stage. As the tooth is moved by the translation stage a fast digital video camera captures series of images of the illuminated surface. The images are analyzed to determine a 3D model of the surface. Custom software is employed to analyze the 3D model and to determine the volume of the ablated craters. Key characteristics of the method are discussed as well as some practical aspects pertinent to its use. The method has been employed in an in-vitro study to examine the ablation rates and speeds of the two main laser types currently employed in dentistry, Er:YAG and Er,Cr:YSGG. Ten samples of extracted human molar teeth were irradiated with laser pulse energies from 80 mJ to the maximum available energy (970 mJ with the Er:YAG, and 260 mJ with the Er,Cr:YSGG). About 2000 images of each ablated tooth surface have been acquired along a translation range of 10 mm, taking about 10 s and providing close to 1 million surface measurement points. Volumes of 170 ablated craters (half of them in dentine and the other half in enamel) were determined from this data and used to examine the ablated volume per pulse energy and ablation speed. The results show that, under the same conditions, the ablated volume per pulse energy achieved by the Er:YAG laser exceeds that of the Er,Cr:YSGG laser in almost all regimes for dentine and enamel. The maximum Er:YAG laser ablation speeds (1.2 mm³/s in dentine and 0.7 mm³/s in enamel) exceed those obtained by the Er,Cr:YSGG laser (0.39 mm³/s in dentine and 0.12 mm³/s in enamel). Since the presented method proves to be easy to use and allows quite rapid measurements it may become a valuable tool to study the influence of various laser parameters on the outcome of laser ablation of dental tissues.     

The super-hydrophobic IR-reflectivity TiO2 coated hollow glass microspheres synthesized by soft-chemistry method

The super-hydrophobic and IR-reflectivity hollow glass microspheres (HGM) was synthesized by being coated with anatase TiO₂ and a super-hydrophobic material. The super-hydrophobic self-cleaning property prolong the life time of the IR reflectivity. TBT and PFOTES were firstly applied and hydrolyzed on HGM and then underwent hydrothermal reaction to synthesis anatase TiO₂ film. For comparison, the PFOTES/TiO₂ mutual-coated HGM (MCHGM), PFOTES single-coated HGM (F-SCHGM) and TiO₂ single-coated HGM (Ti-SCHGM) were synthesized as well. The MCHGM had bigger contact angle (153°) but smaller sliding angle (16°) than F-SCHGM (contact angle: 141.2°; sliding angle: 67°). Ti-SCHGM and MCHGM both showed similar IR reflectivity with ca. 5.8% increase compared with original HGM and F-SCHGM. For the thermal conductivity, coefficients of F-SCHGM (0.0479 W/(m K)) was basically equal to that of the original HGM (0.0475 W/(m K)). Negligible difference was found between the thermal conductivity coefficients of MCHGM-coated HGM (0.0543 W/(m K)) and Ti-SCHGM (0.0546 W/(m K)).     

Pulsed laser induced damage in SOI material

Laser-induced damage in silicon-on-insulator (SOI) material is investigated with 1064 nm laser pulses. As the laser pulse duration is increased from 190 ps to 1.14 s, the damage threshold of SOI material decreases from 1.3×10¹⁰ to 7.7×10³ W/cm² in laser flux. It is found that the damage threshold varies inversely as the pulse duration for a short irradiation time, and is independent of pulse duration for a long irradiation time. The time dependence is in good agreement with a thermal model which well describes the thermal-induced damage in a semi-finite material irradiated by a Gaussian laser beam. The values of absorption coefficient and thermal conductivity under laser irradiation are calculated as 1.1×10³ cm^?1 and 0.18 Wcm^?1 K^?1, respectively, by fitting the model to the experimental results. These results on material damage can be used to predict the damage thresholds of SOI-based devices.     

320 × 256 Short-/Mid-Wavelength dual-color infrared focal plane arrays based on Type-II InAs/GaSb superlattice

Short-/Mid-Wavelength dual-color infrared focal plane arrays based on Type-II InAs/GaSb superlattice are demonstrated on GaSb substrate. The material is grown with 50% cut-off wavelength of 2.9 μm and 5.1 μm for the blue channel and red channel, separately at 77 K. 320 × 256 focal plane arrays fabricated in this wafer is characterized. The peak quantum efficiency without antireflective coating is 37% at 1.7 μm under no bias voltage and 28% at 3.2 μm under bias voltage of 130 mV. The peak specific detectivity are 1.51 × 10¹² cm·Hz^1/2/W at 2.5 μm and 6.11x10¹¹ cm·Hz^1/2/W at 3.2 μm. At 77 K, the noise equivalent difference temperature presents average values of 107 mK and 487 mK for the blue channel and red channel separately.     

High operating temperature SWIR p+–n FPA based on MBE-grown HgCdTe/Si(0 1 3)

The characteristics of SWIR (1.6–3 μm) 320 × 256 and 1024 × 1024 focal plane arrays (FPA’s) based on n-type In-doped HgCdTe heteroepitaxial layers are reported. The HgCdTe layers were grown by molecular beam epitaxy on silicon substrates with ZnTe and CdTe buffer layers. p–n junctions were formed by arsenic ion implantation into HgCdTe film. Reverse current in the temperature range from 210 to 330 K was found to be limited by the diffusion mechanism. At the same time in the temperature range from 140 to 210 K the reverse current was dominated by the thermal generation of charge carriers through deep traps located in the middle of the band gap. At 170 K NETD was less than 40 mK.     

Anomalous strain effect on the thermal conductivity of borophene: a reactive molecular dynamics study

Borophene, an atomically thin, corrugated, crystalline two-dimensional boron sheet, has been recently synthesized. Here we investigate mechanical properties and lattice thermal conductivity of borophene using reactive molecular dynamics simulations. We performed uniaxial tensile strain simulations at room temperature along in-plane directions, and found 2D elastic moduli of 188 N m⁻¹ and 403 N m⁻¹ along zigzag and armchair directions, respectively. This anisotropy is attributed to the buckling of the borophene structure along the zigzag direction. We also performed non-equilibrium molecular dynamics to calculate the lattice thermal conductivity. Considering its size-dependence, we predict room-temperature lattice thermal conductivities of 75.9 ± 5.0 W m⁻¹ K⁻¹ and 147 ± 7.3 W m⁻¹ K⁻¹, respectively, and estimate effective phonon mean free paths of 16.7 ± 1.7 nm and 21.4 ± 1.0 nm for the zigzag and armchair directions. In this case, the anisotropy is attributed to differences in the density of states of low-frequency phonons, with lower group velocities and possibly shorten phonon lifetimes along the zigzag direction. We also observe that when borophene is strained along the armchair direction there is a significant increase in thermal conductivity along that direction. Meanwhile, when the sample is strained along the zigzag direction there is a much smaller increase in thermal conductivity along that direction. For a strain of 8% along the armchair direction the thermal conductivity increases by a factor of 3.5 (250%), whereas for the same amount of strain along the zigzag direction the increase is only by a factor of 1.2 (20%). Our predictions are in agreement with recent first principles results, at a fraction of the computational cost. The simulations shall serve as a guide for experiments concerning mechanical and thermal properties of borophene and related 2D materials.     

Thermal and electrical conductivities of silver–indium–tin alloys

The variations of thermal conductivity with temperature for the Ag–[x] wt% Sn–20 wt% In alloys (x=8, 15, 35, 55 and 70) were measured using a radial heat flow apparatus. From the graphs of thermal conductivity versus temperature, the thermal conductivities of solid phases at their melting temperature for the Ag–[x] wt% Sn–20 wt% In alloys (x=8, 15, 35, 55 and 70) were found to be 46.9±3.3, 53.8±3.8, 61.2±4.3, 65.1±4.6 and 68.1±4.8 W/Km, respectively. The variations of electrical conductivity of solid phases versus temperature for the same alloys were determined from the Wiedemann–Franz equation using the measured values of thermal conductivity. From the graphs of electrical conductivity versus temperature, the electrical conductivities of the solid phases at their melting temperatures for the Ag–[x] wt% Sn–20 wt% In alloys (x=8, 15, 35, 55 and 70) alloys were obtained to be 0.036, 0.043, 0.045, 0.046 and 0.053 (×10⁸/Ωm), respectively. Dependencies of the thermal and electrical conductivities on the composition of Sn in the Ag–Sn–In alloys were also investigated. According to present experimental results, the thermal and electrical conductivities for the Ag–[x] wt% Sn–20 wt% In alloys linearly decrease with increasing the temperature and increase with increasing the composition of Sn.     

Interfacial energies of carbon tetrabromide

The equilibrated grain boundary groove shapes for solid carbon tetrabromide (CTB) in equilibrium with its melt were directly observed by using a horizontal temperature gradient stage. From the observed grain boundary groove shapes, Gibbs–Thomson coefficient (Γ) and solid–liquid interfacial energy (σ_SL) and grain boundary energy (σ_gb) of CTB have been determined to be (7.88 ± 0.8) × 10⁻⁸ K m, (6.91 ± 1.04) × 10⁻³ J m⁻² and (13.43 ± 2.28) × 10⁻³ J m⁻², respectively. The ratio of thermal conductivity of equilibrated liquid phase to solid phase for CTB has also been measured to be 0.90 at its melting temperature. The value of σ_SL for CTB obtained in present work was compared with the values of σ_SL determined in the previous works for same material and it was seen that the present result is in good agreement with previous works.     

Quick response PZT/P(VDF-TrFE) composite film pyroelectric infrared sensor with patterned polyimide thermal isolation layer

The fabrication method and the pyroelectric response of a single element infrared sensor based lead zirconate titanate (PZT) particles and polyvinylidene fluoride P(VDF-TrFE) copolymer composite thick film is reported in this paper. A special thermal insulation structure, including polyimide (PI) thermal insulation layer and thermal insulation tanks, was used in this device. The thermal insulation tanks were fabricated by laser micro-etching technique. Voltage responsivity (R_V), noise voltage (V_noise), noise equivalent power (NEP), and detectivity (D^*) of the PZT/P(VDF-TrFE) based infrared sensor are 1.2 × 10³ V/W, 1.25 × 10⁻⁶ V Hz^1/2, 1.1 × 10⁻⁹ W and 1.9 × 10⁸ cm Hz^1/2 W⁻¹ at 137.3 Hz modulation frequency, respectively. The thermal time constant of the infrared sensor τ_T was about 15 ms. The results demonstrate that the composite infrared sensor show a high detectivity at high chopper frequency, which is an essential advantage in infrared detectors and some other devices.     

Two photon absorption characteristics of bulk GaTe crystal

We have investigated the structural and optical properties of bulk GaTe crystal grown by vertical Bridgman method. Two photon absorption (TPA) properties of GaTe crystal have been investigated by the open aperture Z-scan technique under 1064 nm wavelength with 4 ns or 65 ps pulse durations. The TPA coefficients are greater in ns regime than that of ps regime. Upon increasing intensity of incident light from 5.02×10⁷ W/cm² to 1.07×10⁸ W/cm², the TPA coefficients increased from 3.47×10^?6 cm/W to 8.53×10^?6 cm/W for nanosecond excitation. Similarly, when intensity of incident light was increased from 6.81×10⁸ W/cm² to 9.94×10⁸ W/cm² the TPA coefficients increased from 3.53×10^?7 cm/W to 6.83×10^?7 cm/W for picosecond excitation. Measured TPA coefficient of GaTe crystal is larger than that of GaSe and GaS layered crystals.     

Temperature coefficient of resistance and thermal conductivity of Vanadium oxide ‘Big Mac’ sandwich structure

In this paper, we synthesize and characterize a thin film thermometer structure for infrared microbolometers. The structure is composed of alternating multilayers of Vanadium pentoxide (V₂O₅), 25 nm, and Vanadium (V), 5 nm, thin films deposited by rf magnetron and dc magnetron sputtering respectively and annealed for 20, 30 and 40 min at 300 °C in Nitrogen (N₂) atmosphere. The best achieved temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) was found to be −2.57%/K for 40 min annealed samples. Moreover, we apply, for the first time, the photo-thermal deflection (PTD) technique for measuring the thermal conductivity of the synthesized thin films. The thermal conductivity of the developed thin films reveals an increase in thermal conductivity from 2 W/m K to 5.8 W/m K for as grown and 40 min annealed samples respectively.     

Preparation and characterization of solid polymer electrolytes based on PHEMO and PVDF-HFP

Polymer electrolyte membranes consisting of a novel hyperbranched polyether PHEMO (poly(3-{2-[2-(2-hydroxyethoxy) ethoxy] ethoxy}methyl-3′-methyloxetane)), PVDF-HFP (poly(vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene)) and LiTFSI have been prepared by solution casting technique. X-ray diffraction of the PHEMO/PVDF-HFP polymer matrix and pure PVDF-HFP revealed the difference in crystallinity between them. The effect of different amounts of PVDF-HFP and lithium salts on the conductivity of the polymer electrolytes was studied. The ionic conductivity of the prepared polymer electrolytes can reach 1.64 × 10^? 4 S·cm^? 1 at 30 °C and 1.75 × 10^? 3 S·cm^? 1 at 80 °C. Thermogravimetric analysis informed that the PHEMO/PVDF-HFP matrix exhibited good thermal stability with a decomposition temperature higher than 400 °C. The electrochemical experiments showed that the electrochemical window of the polymer electrolyte was around 4.2 V vs. Li⁺/Li. The PHEMO/PVDF-HFP polymer electrolyte, which has good electrochemical stability and thermal stability, could be a promising solid polymer electrolyte for polymer lithium ion batteries.     

Lipase catalyzed ultrasonic synthesis of poly-4-hydroxybutyrate-co-6-hydroxyhexanoate

Four different lipases were compared for ultrasound-mediated synthesis of the biodegradable copolymer poly-4-hydroxybutyrate-co-6-hydroxyhexanoate. The copolymerization was carried out in chloroform. Of the enzymes tested, Novozym 435 exhibited the highest copolymerization rate, in fact the reaction rate was observed to increase with about 26-fold from 30 to 50 °C (7.9 × 10^?3 M s^?1), sonic power intensity of 2.6 × 10³ W m^?2 and dissipated energy of 130.4 J ml^?1. Copolymerization rates with the Candida antarctica lipase A, Candida rugosa lipase, and Lecitase Ultra? were lower at 2.4 × 10^?4, 1.3 × 10^?4 and 3.5 × 10^?4 M s^?1, respectively. The catalytic efficiency depended on the enzyme. The efficiency ranged from 4.15 × 10^?3 s^?1 M^?1 for Novozym 435–1.48 × 10^?3 s^?1 M^?1 for C. rugosa lipase. Depending on the enzyme and sonication intensity, the monomer conversion ranged from 8.2% to 48.5%. The sonication power, time and temperature were found to affect the rate of copolymerization. Increasing sonication power intensity from 1.9 × 10³ to 4.5 × 10³ W m^?2 resulted in an increased in acoustic pressure (P_a) from 3.7 × 10⁸ to 5.7 × 10⁸ N m^?2 almost 2.4–3.7 times greater than the acoustic pressure (1.5 × 10⁸ N m^?2) that is required to cause cavitation in water. A corresponding acoustic particle acceleration (a) of 9.6 × 10³–1.5 × 10⁴ m s^?2 was calculated i.e. approximately 984–1500 times greater than under the action of gravity.     

Effects of fluoride treatment on phosphoric acid-etching in primary teeth: An AFM observation

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of fluoride application on 37% phosphoric acid-etching by atomic force microscopy (AFM) in primary tooth samples based on a clinical protocol used in a pediatric dental hospital. Enamel samples were prepared from 36 exfoliated and non-carious primary teeth. Primary tooth samples were randomly assigned to one of the four groups based on the timing of acid-etching with 37% phosphoric acid after an acidulated phosphate fluoride (APF) pre-treatment. Group 1 received no fluoride application, Group 2 was pre-treated with fluoride and then received acid-etching 2 weeks later. One week separated the fluoride treatment and the acid-etching in Group 3, while Group 4 received acid-etching immediately after the fluoride treatment. The vestibular enamel surfaces of each primary tooth sample were scanned in air at a resolution of 512 × 512 pixels and a scan speed of 0.8 line/s. On the enamel surfaces of the primary teeth after APF pre-treatment, debris were observed although the teeth were smoother than they were prior to APF. As a result, it was concluded that APF treatment is responsible for decreased primary tooth surface roughness. The enamel surfaces etched for 20 s showed that acid-etching was effective not only in removing scratches and debris, but also for evaluating enamel rod characteristics. Primary tooth enamel surfaces after etching showed minute structures caused by the decreased hydroxyapatite nanoparticle space, compared to those before etching. Also, acid-etching showed significantly increased roughness effects (p < 0.0001, n = 9). Finally, as more time elapsed after APF pre-treatment, the roughness was decreased to a lesser degree (p = 0.005, n = 9). We suggest that primary teeth etching 2 weeks after APF pre-treatment used clinically in pediatric hospitals may be effective to obtain properly etched enamel surfaces.     

Third order nonlinear optical properties of ethyltriphenylphosphonium bis(2-thioxo-1,3-dithiole-4,5-dithiolato)aurate (III)

A novel organometallic compound, ethyltriphenylphosphonium bis(2-thioxo-1,3-dithiole-4,5-dithiolato)aurate (III), abbreviated as TPEPADT, was synthesized. The TPEPADT doped poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) thin film with a mass fraction of 1% (1 wt.%) was prepared by using a spin-coating method. The third-order nonlinear optical properties of TPEPADT in acetonitrile solution and TPEPADT-doped PMMA thin film were investigated by using the laser Z-scan technique at the wavelength 1064 nm with laser duration of 20 ps. The linear refractive index of the polymer thin film was also studied. The Z-scan curves revealed that both TPEPADT in acetonitrile solution and the polymer thin film possessed negative nonlinear refraction, exhibiting a self-defocusing effect and nonlinear absorption was negligible under the experimental conditions used. The nonlinear refractive index was calculated to be ?1.9 × 10^?18 m²/W for TPEPADT in acetonitrile solution and ?8.9 × 10^?15 m²/W for the polymer thin film. These results suggest that TPEPADT have potential for the application of all-optical switching devices.     

Ion-implanted Ge:B far-infrared blocked-impurity-band detectors

Ge blocked-impurity-band (BIB) photoconductors have the potential to replace stressed Ge:Ga photoconductors for far-infrared astronomical observations. A novel planar BIB device has been fabricated in which ion-implanted boron is used to form the blocking contact and absorbing layers of necessary purity and compensation. The effect of doping in the infrared active layer on the far-infrared photoconductive response has been studied, and the optimum doping concentration is found to be ∼4 × 10¹⁶ cm⁻³. Devices doped near this concentration show good blocking characteristics with low dark currents. The spectral response extends to ∼45 cm⁻¹, clearly showing the formation of an impurity band. Under low background testing conditions these devices attain a responsivity of 0.12 A/W and NEP of 5.23 × 10⁻¹⁵ W/Hz^1/2.     

Preparation of poly(vinyl phosphate-b-styrene) copolymers and its blend with PPO as proton exchange membrane for DMFC applications

Poly(vinyl phosphate-b-styrene) (poly(VPP-b-St)) block copolymers were prepared via consecutive telomerization of vinyl acetate (VAc), atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) with styrene, saponification, and phosphorylation with phosphorus oxychloride. The resulting block copolymers were characterized by FT-IR and pH titration. Then, the block copolymers were blended with poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene oxide) (PPO) to prepare direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) membrane. The performance of poly(VPP-b-St)/PPO blend membranes was measured in terms of proton conductivity, methanol permeability, thermal and hydrolytic stability. The proton conductivities were in the range of 10^− 4 to 10^− 2 S/cm (60 °C, RH = 95%); the methanol permeabilities were in the range of 4.14 × 10^− 8 to 9.62 × 10^− 8 cm²/s (25 °C), and quite lower than that of Nafion® 117. Also, the thermal stability of the blend membranes was characterized by TGA, and was stable up to 400 °C; the blend membranes had better hydrolytic stability.