Rapid evaluation of the fatigue limit in composites using infrared lock-in thermography and acoustic emission

Fatigue limit determination via the conventional Wöhler-curve method is associated with extended experimental times as it requires testing of a large number of specimens. The current paper introduces a methodology for fast, reliable and experimentally economic determination of the fatigue limit in monolithic and composite materials by means of combined usage of two nondestructive inspection methods, namely infrared (IR) lock-in thermography and acoustic emission (AE). IR thermography, as a real-time and non-contact technique, allowed the detection of heat waves generated due to thermo-mechanical coupling as well as of the energy dissipated intrinsically during dynamic loading of the material. AE, on the other hand, was employed to record the transient waves resulting from crack propagation events. Aluminum grade 1050 H16 and cross-ply SiC/BMAS ceramic matrix composites were subjected to fatigue loading at various stress levels and were monitored by an IR camera and AE sensors. The fatigue limit of the monolithic material, obtained by the lock-in infrared thermography technique and supported by acoustic emission was found to be in agreement with measurements obtained by the conventional S–N curve method. The fatigue limit of the ceramic matrix composite was validated with acoustic emission data.     

Rapid Determination of Fretting Fatigue Limit by Infrared Thermography

This paper demonstrates the feasibility of infrared thermography to determine the so-called fretting fatigue limit. Fretting fatigue tests are performed on aluminum and steel specimens. The coupled fatigue and tangential loads are sequentially increased (block loading) whilst the normal load is kept constant for all blocks. The temperature data is processed and analyzed using a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm implemented in the commercial software Matlab. It is demonstrated that the second harmonic of the temperature signal can be linked to the specific loading block below which no or negligible damage is generated in the specimen. The stress amplitude of this block is considered to be a best estimate of the fretting fatigue limit. A constant amplitude fretting fatigue test with this stress amplitude confirmed that the specimen remains intact at 10⁷ cycles.     

Strength of damaged polycarbonate after fatigue

A fatigue damage model is proposed to establish a predictive formula for the fatigue service life of polycarbonate (PC) materials. A damage variable is introduced in terms of remaining fracture strain, and a new fatigue damage evolution relation is derived to characterize the extent of fatigue damage after a certain number of loading cycles. Fatigue tests were conducted to construct the stress amplitude versus the fatigue life curve. After different numbers of cycles of fatigue, the new damage variable for PC materials was measured by pulling damaged specimens to fracture under monotonic loading. Experimental results on damage evolution and fatigue life have a good agreement with those predicted by the proposed damage model.     

Stratified model for estimating fatigue crack growth rate of metallic materials

Introduction Thefatiguedestructionisoneofthemaintypesofthemetaldamage.Therelationcurve betweenthefatiguecrackgrowthrateda/dNandthestressstrengthfactoramplitudeΔKisthe importantdatiumoffatiguecapabilityindesigningthemetaldamagetolerantlimitsandpredicting thelifeofmetalcomponentparts.Duetovariabilityofthefatiguecrackgrowthrate,alarge amountoftestsamplesareusuallyrequiredtoderiveahighlyreliableda/dN_ΔKcurve. However,inmostactualengineeringpractice,itishardtofindmultiplespecimenswithvery simil…     

Fatigue-damage evaluation for mild steel incorporating mean stress and overload effects

Successful estimation of the service life of a structure or component which is subjected to a complex history of loading, depends on a suitable cumulative-damage summation technique. A general technique must be capable of predicting the effects on fatigue life of geometry, mean stress or strain, occasional overloads or overstrains, frequency of cycling and environment. As a contribution towards the general solution, this paper describes the utilization of a fatigue-damage summation method which incorporates two of these variables, mean stress and overloads. The method is tested for complex load histories in mild-steel specimens in the intermediate to long-life range. A four-part constant-stress-amplitude testing program was carried out consisting of: (a) tests with a constant mean stress, (b) tests on prestrained specimens, (c) tests with a mean stress applied in one block of cycles, and (d) tests with a mean stress applied in frequent regularly spaced short blocks. The constant-mean-stress results, which include several values of mean stress both tensile and compressive, are reduced to a single curve on a stress-life plot with either of two simple parameters (from Morrow and Smith, et al.) as ordinate. The prestrained specimen tests result in another curve lower than the first, showing the reduction in life due to the few initial cycles of high strain. These two effects are then incorporated into a cumulative-damage summation technique which is based on the well-known Miner's rule. The two curves on the stress-life plot are the foundation for the subsequent summations. The technique assumes that the first application of an overload causing appreciable plastic straining reduces the remaining fatigue life. A significant point is that this assumption apparently holds for both tensile and compressive overloads. The accuracy of this technique is demonstrated for a wide range of stress conditions and loading histories.     

疲劳过程中生热机理的实验探讨

传统的疲劳试验方法确定材料的疲劳极限时试验周期长、需要试件多,故高试验成本成为疲劳试验中一个难以解决的问题.文中利用具有准确、快速、便捷、低成本等优点的热像法测定了多种载荷工况下Q235钢的疲劳极限,并对不同的黏或/和塑性效应主导的生热机制进行了探讨.材料疲劳过程中,疲劳极限之下的载荷引起的温度波动来源于热弹性效应,温升来源于材料的非弹、塑性效应(如黏性效应);而疲劳极限之上的载荷引起塑性功累计,导致疲劳损伤产生,使得温升机制出现转折.通过对试验数据的分析,求出了材料的黏性系数,给出了利用塑性能耗的起点确定材料疲劳极限的方法.     

An Investigation of Fatigue Characteristics of Copper Film

Tensile and fatigue behaviors of the copper film coated by tin (Sn) were investigated considering S-N relationships and scanning electron microscope (SEM) observation of fracture surfaces. The fatigue behavior was investigated considering the effect of load ratio, R. The specimen of 2000 μm width, 8000 μm length and 15.26 μm thickness was fabricated by etching process. Tensile properties were measured using the micro-tensile testing system and in-plane electronic speckle pattern interferometric (ESPI) system for measuring the tensile strain during the test. The fatigue tests of the film were carried out in load-control mode with 40 Hz at three different stress ratios of 0.05, 0.3 and 0.5. The S-N curves, including the slope of the curve and fatigue limit, at the respective stress ratios were obtained. These curves were dependent on the load ratio. Empirical relationships indicating the dependency of the fatigue limit and S-N curve on the load ratio were suggested in this study. SEM observation of the tensile fracture surface showed that the cross-sectional area of the testing section was necked in the direction of the film thickness (i.e. parallel to the substrate surface normal) and some ductile dimples in the fracture surface were present. The fracture of the copper film under cyclic loading was progressed in the transgranular fracture mode.     

超声疲劳试验方法及其应用

超声疲劳是一种加速的疲劳试验方法,它的测试频率(20kHz)远远超过了常规疲劳测试频率(小于200Hz)．超声疲劳试验研究表明50^#车轴钢和40Cr钢直到10^10个应力循环后仍会发生疲劳断裂,并不存在常规疲劳试验曲线所示的“疲劳极限”,因此用10^7周次的疲劳试验数据进行疲劳强度设计并不安全．50^#车轴钢和40Cr钢超声疲劳性能优于常规疲劳性能．扫描电镜分析表明,超长寿命阶段50^#车轴钢裂纹萌生于次表面夹杂．介绍了超声疲劳试验系统、工作原理及超声疲劳试样的设计．     

TC4钛合金超高周次轴向振动疲劳试验

应用基于压电超声疲劳试验技术开发的20kHz轴向振动疲劳试验系统,完成了室温下TC4钛合金超高周疲劳试验,获得了TC4合金在107～109周次范围内的轴向振动疲劳寿命曲线(S-N曲线);运用C.Paris推导公式预测了TC4合金材料的寿命,得到各应力水平下破坏率为50％、95％、99％的安全寿命.结果表明:在疲劳循环大于107周次时,试件仍会发生疲劳断裂,疲劳强度随循环次数的增加而下降,并不存在明显的疲劳极限.TC4合金的S-N曲线在107～109周次的范围内呈连续下降型.在轴向振动超高周疲劳试验中,试件的裂纹扩展寿命只占其在50％破坏率下疲劳安全寿命的一小部分,其疲劳寿命主要由试件的裂纹萌生寿命决定.     

Probabilistic multiscale models and measurements of self-heating under multiaxial high cycle fatigue

Different approaches have been proposed to link high cycle fatigue properties to thermal measurements under cyclic loadings, usually referred to as “self-heating tests.” This paper focuses on two models whose parameters are tuned by resorting to self-heating tests and then used to predict high cycle fatigue properties. The first model is based upon a yield surface approach to account for stress multiaxiality at a microscopic scale, whereas the second one relies on a probabilistic modelling of microplasticity at the scale of slip-planes.Both model identifications are cost effective, relying mainly on quickly obtained temperature data in self-heating tests. They both describe the influence of the stress heterogeneity, the volume effect and the hydrostatic stress on fatigue limits. The thermal effects and mean fatigue limit predictions are in good agreement with experimental results for in and out-of phase tension-torsion loadings. In the case of fatigue under non-proportional loading paths, the mean fatigue limit prediction error of the critical shear stress approach is three times less than with the yield surface approach.     

Using the scanning infrared camera in experimental fatigue studies

Materials under cyclic loading dissipate energy in the form of heat due to hysteresis effects in the material. At locations of high stress levels, more heat is released than elsewhere, resulting in a local temperature rise in those areas. The scanning infrared camera has been used in this study to visualize the surface-temperature field on steel and fiberglass-epoxy composite samples during fatigue tests. The information achieved in this manner allows one to predict the probable location of the greatest fatigue damage well before such damage becomes visible in the form of a crack. The use of the scanning infrared camera for monitoring traveling cracks and mapping the temperature fields resulting from stress concentrations in cyclically loaded materials is also demonstrated. The results indicate that this instrument is of value in both nondestructive testing and crack-propagation studies.     

高强度钢的超高周疲劳裂纹扩展模型研究

当疲劳寿命在106或107周时,Wöhler S-N 曲线被看作渐近于水平轴,107的疲劳强度被看成是疲劳极限。现代应用要求延长零件的工作寿命,实际齿轮部件应用超过107循环的疲劳失效。本文应用压电超声疲劳试验机对经过热处理和渗碳处理后的低铬合金钢材料进行研究,采用红外摄像仪观测试件表面的温度场随疲劳裂纹萌生和扩展的过程。试验条件是室温,应力比为0.1（R=0.1）,频率为20KHz。通过对表面渗碳处理后试件的断口分析,探讨表面渗碳处理、微观结构和与杂质有关的断裂机理,根据Paris公式建立超高周疲劳裂纹扩展模型。对裂纹扩展过程中裂纹尖端的塑性区的分析结果,结合传热学原理,建立热耗散模型,有限元方法的数值解结果较好地符合红外摄像仪的观测的试验结果。     

Thermo-mechanical measurement of elasto-plastic transitions during cyclic loading

The surface temperature of stainless steel SS304 low cycle fatigue specimens subjected to cyclic loading was studied using infrared thermography technique. The thermal data mapped onto the various stages of cyclic stress-strain curve shows the ability of these measurements to identify the yield points in both the compression and tension loading. Based on the results of this study, it is possible to identify the state of stress for materials such as elastic tension, plastic tension, elastic compression, plastic compression during cyclic loading using infrared thermographic data. The thermo-elastic slope and thermo-plastic slope was observed to be dependent on the prior loading cycles.     

The evolution of crystalline stresses of a polycrystalline metal during cyclic loading

The presence of a positive average applied stress during cyclic uniaxial loading leads to a reduction in fatigue life of metallic parts. The metals are typically polycrystalline, with stresses varying from crystal to crystal due to differences in lattice orientation and slip system strength. Simulations enable us to better understand how polycrystals behave under cyclic loading and how the changing stress over many cycles influences fatigue life. Specifically, uniaxial cyclic simulations of pre-strained HY100 steel were conducted using an elastic viscoplastic continuum slip model employing a Taylor hypothesis. Stress-controlled loading conditions were employed to mimic fatigue tests on cold-bent bar specimens for three different load levels. The macroscopic axial strains and the crystal axial stresses were monitored during the cycles. The stress–strain response for the first cycle was used to determine the load input for the material point simulations. The peak values of crystal axial stress were found to evolve continuously with the number of loading cycles. It was found that the stress change in a crystal is influenced not only by its own orientation but also by the orientations of the other crystals in the aggregate. Furthermore, the distribution of crystal stresses after thousands of cycles at a lower stress amplitude closely resembled the distribution after tens of cycles at a larger stress amplitude.     

一种基于耗散能计算的高周疲劳参数预测方法

在热力学框架下,基于薄板假设,建立金属材料薄板试样在高周疲劳载荷作用下的热传导方程,将试样温度场数据和实时载荷信号导入,准确计算与高周疲劳损伤相关的单个循环内耗散能. 基于该方法,以316L不锈钢材料为例,通过实时监测试样不同应力水平下高周疲劳破坏全过程中耗散能的变化,拟合出耗散能-疲劳寿命曲线,呈现与传统的应力-疲劳寿命曲线相同的规律;提出一种新的预测高周疲劳极限的能量法,确定的疲劳极限与实验值相近.     

疲劳等损伤线的实验验证和分析

关于疲劳等损伤线的研究目前存在几种观点。本文根据高低二级应力作用下的疲劳寿命试验,验证了等损伤线互不平行且向下汇聚。还讨论了等损伤线的表达式,斜率变化和二级载荷下的疲劳寿命估算等问题。     

Experimental Energy Balance During the First Cycles of Cyclically Loaded Specimens Under the Conventional Yield Stress

This paper, as an extension of Maquin and Pierron (Mech Mater 41(8):928–942, 2009), presents an experimental procedure developed to macroscopically estimate the energy balance during the very first cycles of a uniaxially loaded metallic specimen at low stress levels. This energy balance is performed by simultaneously measuring the plastic input energy using a load cell and a strain gauge, and the dissipative energy using the temperature field provided by an infrared camera. Some experimental limitations led to restrain the present procedure to positive stress ratios, and to complement this energy balance by a second measurement while the material plastic work per cycle is negligible compared to the dissipative energy. Some results obtained on a cold rolled low carbon steel specimen are presented. First, a sensitivity study is undertaken to precisely determine the detection threshold on both thermal and plastic energies. Then, after having verified the homogeneity of the dissipative source fields, energy balances have been performed at different stress levels. It was thus confirmed that the slow variations of the dissipative sources occurring during the first cycles are due to micro-plastic adaptation, and that the dissipative sources remaining after some hundreds of cycles are due to viscoelastic (internal friction) phenomena. This procedure provides a better understanding of dissipation based approaches to fatigue found in the literature and an advanced tool to study viscoelastic phenomena in uniaxial loading.     

Cumulative damage evaluation of steel using infrared thermography

Following the first damage models proposed by Palmgren and Miner, numerous researchers have focused on the problem of predicting the residual life of a material from its load history. Every component dynamically loaded, particularly over the fatigue limit, shows an increase in temperature. The higher the temperature, the higher the load applied. Therefore, in an undamaged material or mechanical component, it is possible to associate each loading stress over the fatigue limit with a temperature value at the hottest point of the surface during the first phase of the test trough a thermo-mechanical characterization (TMC) map. Using the thermoanalysis of steel specimen data, this paper shows that the energetic effect (as a different temperature increments for equal loading uniaxial stress) can be used to evaluate the cumulative damage caused by previous loading. The tests were performed using C40 steel for which traditional fatigue curves in literature are reported.     

Analysis of Strain Energy Behavior Throughout a Fatigue Process

The dissipation of strain energy density per cycle was analyzed to understand its trend through a fatigue process. The motivation behind this analysis is to improve a fatigue life prediction method, which is based on a strain energy and failure correlation. The correlation states that the same amount of strain energy is dissipated during both monotonic fracture and cyclic fatigue. This means the summation of strain energy density per cycle is equal to the total strain energy density dissipated monotonically. In order to validate this understanding, the strain energy density per cycle was analyzed at several alternating stress levels for fatigue life of Aluminum 6061-T6 (Al 6061-T6) between 10³ and 10⁵ cycles. The analysis includes the following: Alternating between high and low operating frequencies (50x magnitude difference), interruption of cyclic load during testing, and idle/zero-loading intervals of 20–40 minutes in-between cyclic loading sequences. All experimental results show a consistent trend of cyclic softening as the loading cycles approach failure; however, due to an inefficient curve fit procedure of the stress-dependent strain equation at low alternating stresses onto the experimental stress-strain data, a new approach for calculating the strain energy density per cycle is explored and shows promising results.