Holding characteristics of fasteners in bone

A satisfactory method was developed for evaluating the holding characteristics of fasteners in bone. Using this method in over 100 tests, the ultimate pull-out forces and shear stresses were determined for two sizes of sheet-metal type of screws with various interference fits, for a commercial orthopedic self-tapping screw, and for two sizes of machine screws in tapped bone, each at five sections of equine metacarpus. The ultimate pull-out force was maximum at the midlength of the bone, and minimum at the distal end. In general, the failure mechanisms were bone-thread shear for low pull-out forces, bone splitting at intermediate pull-out forces, and bone fragmentation at high pull-out forces. The failure mechanisms of the bone indicate that orthopedic fasteners should possibly not be designed for maximum holding force.     

考虑平均应力的同频拉扭多轴高周疲劳寿命评价方法

目前基于临界平面理论的高周疲劳寿命预测模型, 大都充分考虑了法向平均应力对材料疲劳寿命的影响, 但是没有有效反映剪切平均应力对疲劳寿命的影响. 通过分析7075-T651铝合金的试验数据发现, 与法向拉平均应力类似, 剪切平均应力同样对材料的疲劳寿命产生不利影响. 因此, 如果寿命预测模型中忽略剪切平均应力的影响, 存在明显剪切平均应力加载工况下, 预测寿命可能偏于危险. 由此, 本文定义具有较大法向应力的最大剪应力范围平面为临界平面, 建立了一个能够同时反映法向和剪切平均应力影响的高周疲劳寿命预测模型, 并给出了模型中材料常数的确定方法. 新模型首先将基于应变的Fatemi-Socie准则, 推广到材料的高周疲劳寿命预测, 给出了Fatemi-Socie准则的应力表述形式. 然后, 引入剪切和法向Walker因子, 反映剪切和法向平均应力对材料疲劳寿命的影响. 剪切和法向Walker因子的取值都介于0和1之间, 不同取值反映了材料对剪切和法向平均应力敏感程度的不同. 新模型适用于范围内的金属塑性材料. 利用5种材料在12种存在平均应力加载工况下的试验数据, 对所建模型进行了试验验证, 结果表明预测结果与试验结果吻合良好, 绝大多数寿命预测结果分布在3倍误差带以内.      

A MULTIAXIAL HIGH CYCLE FATIGUE LIFE PREDICTION MODEL CONSIDERING THE EFFECT OF MEAN STRESS FOR TENSION-TORSION LOADINGS WITH SAME FREQUENCY 1)

目前基于临界平面理论的高周疲劳寿命预测模型, 大都充分考虑了法向平均应力对材料疲劳寿命的影响, 但是没有有效反映剪切平均应力对疲劳寿命的影响. 通过分析7075-T651铝合金的试验数据发现, 与法向拉平均应力类似, 剪切平均应力同样对材料的疲劳寿命产生不利影响. 因此, 如果寿命预测模型中忽略剪切平均应力的影响, 存在明显剪切平均应力加载工况下, 预测寿命可能偏于危险. 由此, 本文定义具有较大法向应力的最大剪应力范围平面为临界平面, 建立了一个能够同时反映法向和剪切平均应力影响的高周疲劳寿命预测模型, 并给出了模型中材料常数的确定方法. 新模型首先将基于应变的Fatemi-Socie准则, 推广到材料的高周疲劳寿命预测, 给出了Fatemi-Socie准则的应力表述形式. 然后, 引入剪切和法向Walker因子, 反映剪切和法向平均应力对材料疲劳寿命的影响. 剪切和法向Walker因子的取值都介于0和1之间, 不同取值反映了材料对剪切和法向平均应力敏感程度的不同. 新模型适用于范围内的金属塑性材料. 利用5种材料在12种存在平均应力加载工况下的试验数据, 对所建模型进行了试验验证, 结果表明预测结果与试验结果吻合良好, 绝大多数寿命预测结果分布在3倍误差带以内.     

An instrumented fastener for shear force measurements in joints

A preliminary investigation has been conducted on instrumented fasteners for use as sensors to measure the shear loads transmitted by individual fasteners installed in double-splice joints. Calibration and load verification tests were conducted for instrumented fasteners installed at three fastener torque levels. Results from calibration tests show that the shear strains obtained from the instrumented fasteners vary linearly with the applied load and that the instrumented fasteners can be effectively used to measure shear loads transmitted by individual fasteners installed in double-splice joints. Tests were also conducted with three instrumented fasteners installed in a typical double-splice joint. The test results showed that the load distribution between individual fasteners is dependent on the location of the fastener in the joint and the fastener torque level. The fastener located near the end of the joint with the single plate carried more load than the fasteners located near the end of the joint with the two plates. Installing the fasteners with a torque greater than finger tight results in a significant amount of the load being carried by friction between the faying surfaces of the plates even if the faying surfaces are polished and lubricated. Increasing the fastener torque increases the load being carried by friction between the faying surfaces of the joint. Increasing friction between the faying surfaces of the joint. Increasing the fastener torque also results in a more uniform distribution of the loads between the individual fasteners for joints in aluminum plates with two fasteners, but does not have a significant effect for joints in steel plates with three fasteners. Paper was presented at the 1992 SEM Spring Conference on Experimental Mechanics held in Las Vegas, NV on June 8–11.     

An investigation of the use of strain gages to measure welding-induced residual stresses

The measurement of weld-induced residual stress is important in structures that are subjected to cyclic loading during their service life. Depending on their magnitude, stresses can influence the rate of crack growth under cyclic loading and hence affect the life of the structure. Because the level of residual stress may change during service, measurement of these changes is necessary for accurate life prediction of the structures. The measurement of welding-induced residual stress using strain gages poses significant problems, the most important being the potential damage to the gages by high temperatures generated in the welding process. This laboratory study was undertaken to assess the suitability and signal stability of commercially available resistive strain gages for the measurement of postweld residual stresses in a submarine hull structure. Adhesively bonded and weldable-type strain gages were attached to the surface of a 35 mm thick steel plate, which was then subjected to thermal cycles similar to those encountered during welding construction of a submarine pressure hull. This paper describes the strain gage application procedure, changes in the strain gage output at end of each experimental stage and the history of changes in the residual stress.     

The evolution of crystalline stresses of a polycrystalline metal during cyclic loading

The presence of a positive average applied stress during cyclic uniaxial loading leads to a reduction in fatigue life of metallic parts. The metals are typically polycrystalline, with stresses varying from crystal to crystal due to differences in lattice orientation and slip system strength. Simulations enable us to better understand how polycrystals behave under cyclic loading and how the changing stress over many cycles influences fatigue life. Specifically, uniaxial cyclic simulations of pre-strained HY100 steel were conducted using an elastic viscoplastic continuum slip model employing a Taylor hypothesis. Stress-controlled loading conditions were employed to mimic fatigue tests on cold-bent bar specimens for three different load levels. The macroscopic axial strains and the crystal axial stresses were monitored during the cycles. The stress–strain response for the first cycle was used to determine the load input for the material point simulations. The peak values of crystal axial stress were found to evolve continuously with the number of loading cycles. It was found that the stress change in a crystal is influenced not only by its own orientation but also by the orientations of the other crystals in the aggregate. Furthermore, the distribution of crystal stresses after thousands of cycles at a lower stress amplitude closely resembled the distribution after tens of cycles at a larger stress amplitude.     

2012 William M. Murray Lecture: Some Curious Unresolved Problems, Speculations, and Advances in Mechanical Fastening

Mechanical joining is one of the oldest, most important, and most neglected aspects of engineering design of machines and structures of all types and sizes. Approximately 250 U.S. companies manufacture fasteners worth over $8 billion per year. There are 18,000 fasteners in a common fighter jet airframe, and fasteners account for roughly one-third the cost of a typical airplane. Yet, most failures of structures, including aircraft, originate at fasteners, suggesting that improved understanding of fastener mechanics, better design criteria, and informed applications of fundamental knowledge are required. This issue is exacerbated by increased demands on systems, particularly in the transportation and military sectors, and by the growing use of composites, for which current fastening practice seems to be underdeveloped owing to the complexities of material structure and response. This lecture first traces a brief history of mechanical joining, its importance, and the problems faced by engineers in designing for fastening. Research and development of fasteners through analysis and experiment are complicated by the large array of variables involved, and investigators must have at hand an extensive array of experimental and analytical techniques as well as an appreciation of the practicalities of fastening. Verification and validation of findings are crucial, and extrapolation is fraught with pitfalls. Described subsequently are some examples of experimental results that generate speculation and that might provide points of entry for investigators who are willing to take on difficult challenges where progress would be valuable but is not easily realized. These cases include, among others, odd and perhaps dangerous behaviors resulting from coldworking holes in engines and structures, impact stresses caused by joint slippage in composites, the use of inserts to control stress concentrations, difficulties in applying sufficient clamping force in composites, merits of hole shaping, and unusual configurations of conical washers. Finally, some ideas for hybrid joining and for systems that allow quick field assembly/disassembly are briefly described.     

High-pressure strength of aluminum under quasi-isentropic loading

Under shock loading, metals typically increase in strength with shock pressure initially but at higher stresses will eventually soften due to thermal effects. Under isentropic loading, thermal effects are minimized, so strength should rise to much higher levels. To date, though, study of strength under isentropic loading has been minimal. Here, we report new experimental results for magnetic ramp loading and impact by layered impactors in which the strength of 6061-T6 aluminum is measured under quasi-isentropic loading to stresses as high as 55 GPa. Strength is inferred from measured velocity histories using Lagrangian analysis of the loading and unloading responses; strength is related to the difference of these two responses. A simplified method to infer strength directly from a single velocity history is also presented. Measured strengths are consistent with shock loading and instability growth results to about 30 GPa but are somewhat higher than shock data for higher stresses. The current results also agree reasonably well with the Steinberg–Guinan strength model. Significant relaxation is observed as the peak stress is reached due to rate dependence and perhaps other mechanisms; accounting for this rate dependence is necessary for a valid comparison with other results.     

Multi-axial low-cycle-fatigue test rig

A multi-axial rig for testing aircraft gasturbine compressor and turbine disks is described. The rig is based on the closed-loop electro-servo hydraulic control principle. This principle combines the use of hydraulic and electronic components not only to control the loads but to hold the true disk position. Nonrotating disks can be loaded to produce stresses which closely simulate loading experimenced by disks in service. Disks with up to 100 loading points and with diameters between 2.5 in. and 18 in. are acceptable within this framework, with loads up to 25,000 lb per loading point, at frequencies up to 7 Hz, and at temperatures in excess of 1500°F. The rig has demonstrated its effectiveness as a useful laboratory tool for compressor and turbine-disk low-cycle fatigue and cyclic stress-rupture life evaluation.     

基于应变能的复杂应力场低周疲劳分析

塑性应变能使材料微观组织结构发生不可逆变化,从而引起等效宏观应力,该应力随循环加载而增大．假定材料疲劳源处破坏是由最大拉应力引起的,最大等效宏观应力与外加应力叠加达到材料本征断裂应力时形成微裂纹．微裂纹引起上述两部分应力变化,继续加载直至宏观裂纹出现,从而得到材料的疲劳寿命．本文所建立的多轴疲劳寿命公式包含材料参数、拉应力以及塑性应变能等,以上数据可通过单轴疲劳数据和有限元方法获得．通过对SM45C材料的计算验证,表明该模型对多轴随机应变加载低周疲劳寿命,具有良好的预测结果．     

复合材料/金属混合结构热应力分布规律

以飞机机身典型部位复合材料与Z型长桁螺栓连接为研究对象,采用Python脚本语言编程,在ABAQUS平台建立了6种紧固长度有限元模型,模拟飞机在高空低温的飞行环境,得到了混合结构的应力、应变分布规律。数值仿真结果表明:铝梁顶部应变结果呈现中间高、两边低的现象,紧固螺栓应变结果则呈现出相反的趋势;末端紧固件承受的剪切载荷最大,而中心的紧固件剪切载荷最小;该温度场结果与已有文献的试验测试结果误差在3℃以内,对复合材料与金属混合结构的设计具有一定意义。     

Fatigue-life prediction using local stress-strain concepts

A cumulative-damage approach for predicting fatigue-crack initiation in engineering structures subjected to random loading is outlined. This procedure is based on the assumption that if the stresses and strains at the critical location in a structure can be related to the cyclic stress-strain properties of smooth laboratory specimens, the crack-initiation life in the structure will be the same as the specimen. A flow diagram, indicating the steps required for implementing this procedure on a high-speed digital computer, is discussed in detail.     

竖向均布荷载作用在地基内部时的土中应力公式

建筑物基础一般都是埋入地基中，且有一定深度，而目前土中应力计算所常依据的布西奈斯克解却是假定荷载地表面导出的。本文以半无限体内受竖向力作用的明德林公式为根据，通过积分而首次完整地推导出竖向矩形均布荷载作用在地基内部上的土中应力分量解析表达式，并与布氏公式进行比较，说明其应用范围，以便于工程设计人员在设计时使用。     

疲劳等损伤线的实验验证和分析

关于疲劳等损伤线的研究目前存在几种观点。本文根据高低二级应力作用下的疲劳寿命试验,验证了等损伤线互不平行且向下汇聚。还讨论了等损伤线的表达式,斜率变化和二级载荷下的疲劳寿命估算等问题。     

Analysis of Strain Energy Behavior Throughout a Fatigue Process

The dissipation of strain energy density per cycle was analyzed to understand its trend through a fatigue process. The motivation behind this analysis is to improve a fatigue life prediction method, which is based on a strain energy and failure correlation. The correlation states that the same amount of strain energy is dissipated during both monotonic fracture and cyclic fatigue. This means the summation of strain energy density per cycle is equal to the total strain energy density dissipated monotonically. In order to validate this understanding, the strain energy density per cycle was analyzed at several alternating stress levels for fatigue life of Aluminum 6061-T6 (Al 6061-T6) between 10³ and 10⁵ cycles. The analysis includes the following: Alternating between high and low operating frequencies (50x magnitude difference), interruption of cyclic load during testing, and idle/zero-loading intervals of 20–40 minutes in-between cyclic loading sequences. All experimental results show a consistent trend of cyclic softening as the loading cycles approach failure; however, due to an inefficient curve fit procedure of the stress-dependent strain equation at low alternating stresses onto the experimental stress-strain data, a new approach for calculating the strain energy density per cycle is explored and shows promising results.     

Design and stress evaluation of a nonsymmetric pressure vessel

Presently, the large variation in demand for electrical power at different periods of the day imposes new considerations in the evaluation of pressure components in large steam-generating equipment. In the past, pressure components such as valve bodies have been designed for static pressure conditions against bursting with sufficient stiffness to assure operation ability. In today's plant operation, the response of the valve body to thermal transients will have a major influence on the life of the valve. Since the valve body is a compact nonsymmetric body, the direct calculation of stresses is very complex. The evaluation of the behavior of nonsymmetric pressure components under the loads imposed by various operational modes requires information from both analytical and experimental methods of analysis. The contributions from modern computer-calculation programs and three-dimensional photoelasticity are discussed as applied to the evaluation of a valve body used in a large, supercritical steam generator. In the analysis, computer procedures are used to develop the preliminary geometry for pressure loading. Because of the close proximity of the nonsymmetrical openings, a three-dimensional photoelastic analysis is used to calibrate the computer model. Once a satisfactory computer model has been developed for pressure loading, it is used to calculate the thermal stresses. Since stresses have little meaning in themselves, a design basis is necessary to evaluate the significance of the calculated stresses. The design basis must consider the types of failures which are possible and is thus dependent on the temperature at which the valve must operate. A design basis is discussed for the evaluation of pressure components in a boiler system.     

Hybrid Thermoelastic Stress Analysis of a Pinned Joint

Mechanical joints such as bolted or pinned connections are commonly used to fasten mechanical or structural members together. Inadequate knowledge of the stresses at the edge of the loaded holes can render it difficult to stress analyze such mechanical fasteners theoretically or numerically. Thermoelastic stress analysis (TSA) is utilized here to analyze a plane-stressed pin-loaded plate. The approach combines the recorded temperature information with an Airy stress function, plus imposes the traction-free conditions on the non-contacting edge of the hole and on the external boundaries of the plate. Individual components of stress are determined full-field as well as on the pin-plate interface. In addition to agreeing with the frequently assumed interface contact stresses in mechanical connections having zero clearance, the TSA results satisfy force equilibrium, are compatible with residual markings on the contacted surfaces of the pin and the hole, and correlate with FEM predictions. Significant advantages of TSA here include neither needing to know the elastic modulus nor to differentiate the recorded information.     

Micromechanical analysis of failure in thin protective coatings

The integrity of protective coatings is the subject of this investigation. Specifically, we concentrate on the case of thermo-protective coatings, so-called thermal barrier coatings, aiming at development of methodology for service life estimation of the coated components under thermal loading. At the current phase of the development, we establish relationships between various thermal loading patterns and failure driving parameters at different failure stages by developing an analytical–computational model of the process. The analysis addresses a typical failure development pattern consisting of a system of multiple surface cracks leading to and branching along or near the interface between the coating and the base material. The process is driven by thermal stresses. The developed model is applicable to thin coatings and provides insight into the processes taking place during failure development and the effect of the details of the applied thermal loading.The methods developed in the course of this investigation may be applied to the analysis of environmental effects on protective coatings and to investigations of failure development in layered composite systems under general loading conditions.     

Creep-fatigue crack growth behavior of 304 stainless steel at 650°C

This study considers life prediction analysis of high temperature structures. In the case of failure under high temperature cyclic loading, material is damaged by cavity growth and crack propagates along the cavitated grain boundaries with higher growth rate. With this cavity damaging effects, a crack growth model has been developed. Using this model, computer simulation of life prediction has been performed for 304 stainless steel under various loading shapes at high temperatures.     

A method to produce uniform plane-stress states with applications to fiber-reinforced materials

This work is concerned with a new method for testing material properties under uniform plane-stress conditions by means of a specially designed plane specimen. Photoelastic analysis showed that in the significant section of the specimen it is possible to produce uniform plane stress, with high accuracy, subject to the limitation that the principal stresses are of different signs. An important special case of loading produces pure shear on the significant section. The specimen is of particular importance for fiber-composite testing. The experimental results presented are encouraging.