Growth Control of High-Performance In As/Ga Sb Type-Ⅱ Superlattices via Optimizing the In/Ga Beam-Equivalent Pressure Ratio

The performance of type-II superlattice(T2 SL) long-wavelength infrared devices is limited by crystalline quality of T2 SLs. We optimize the process of growing molecular beam epitaxy deposition T2 SL epi-layers on Ga Sb(100)to improve the material properties. Samples with identical structure but diverse In/Ga beam-equivalent pressure(BEP) ratio are studied by various methods, including high-resolution x-ray diffraction, atomic force microscopy and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. We find that appropriately increasing the In/Ga BEP ratio contributes to improving the quality of T2 SLs, but too large In BEP will much more easily cause a local strain,which can lead to more In Sb islands in the In Sb interfaces. The In Sb islands melt in the In Sb interfaces caused by the change of chemical potential of In atoms may result in the "nail" defects covering the whole T2 SLs, especially the interfaces of Ga Sb-on-In As. When the In/Ga BEP ratio is about 1, the T2 SL material possesses a lower full width at half maximum of +1 first-order satellite peak, much smoother surface and excellently larger area uniformity.     

Complementary barrier infrared detector (CBIRD) with double tunnel junction contact and quantum dot barrier infrared detector (QD-BIRD)

The InAs/GaSb type-II superlattice based complementary barrier infrared detector (CBIRD) has already demonstrated very good performance in long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) detection. In this work, we describe results on a modified CBIRD device that incorporates a double tunnel junction contact designed for robust device and focal plane array processing. The new device also exhibited reduced turn-on voltage. We also report results on the quantum dot barrier infrared detector (QD-BIRD). By incorporating self-assembled InSb quantum dots into the InAsSb absorber of the standard nBn detector structure, the QD-BIRD extend the detector cutoff wavelength from ∼4.2 μm to 6 μm, allowing the coverage of the mid-wavelength infrared (MWIR) transmission window. The device has been observed to show infrared response at 225 K.     

Detector and readout performance goals for quantum well and strained layer superlattice focal plane arrays imaging under tactical and strategic backgrounds

Advancements in III–V semiconductor based, Quantum-well infrared photodetector (QWIP) and Type-II Strained-Layer Superlattice detector (T2SLS) technologies have yielded highly uniform, large-format long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) QWIP FPAs and high quantum efficiency (QE), small format, LWIR T2SLS FPAs. In this article, we have analyzed the QWIP and T2SLS detector level performance requirements and readout integrated circuit (ROIC) noise levels for several staring array long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) imaging applications at various background levels. As a result of lower absorption QE and less than unity photoconductive gain, QWIP FPAs are appropriate for high background tactical applications. However, if the application restricts the integration time, QWIP FPA performance may be limited by the read noise of the ROIC. Rapid progress in T2SLS detector material has already demonstrated LWIR detectors with sufficient performance for tactical applications and potential for strategic applications. However, significant research is needed to suppress surface leakage currents in order to reproduce performances at pixel levels of T2SLS FPAs.     

Characterization of LWIR diodes on InAs/GaSb Type-II superlattice material

Long wavelength infrared (LWIR) focal plane arrays (FPAs) built on Type-II strained layer InAs/GaSb superlattice materials are emerging as an alternative to LWIR HgCdTe. We have made progress in the development of this technology in a collaborative effort between Raytheon Vision Systems and Jet Propulsion Laboratory, resulting in successful devices with LWIR cutoff wavelengths. We report here two investigations related to wafer processing and superlattice material characteristics. The critical interface between the superlattice and the silicon dioxide passivation was examined at the atomic scale by high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), showing a conformal coating on an InAs/GaSb mesa sidewall, which undulates with the superlattice periodicity due to differential etching. Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) showed that oxides of the superlattice elements were present but minimal, and some occasional arsenic precipitates were observed at the passivation interface. Our previous analysis of the current–voltage curves was extended further to reveal the minority carrier lifetimes responsible for producing the generation–recombination (GR) and the diffusion dark currents. Lifetimes at 78 K were found to be 6 and 20 ns in the GR and diffusion processes, respectively. Lifetimes from both mechanisms track together with temperature. A HgCdTe diode was analyzed in the same manner for comparison.     

InAs/GaSb superlattice infrared detectors

Future heterojunction InAs/GaSb superlattice (SL) detector devices in the long-wavelength infrared regime (LWIR, 8–12 μm) require an accurate bandstructure model and a successful surface passivation. In this study, we have validated the superlattice empirical pseudopotential method developed by Dente and Tilton over a wide range of bandgap energies. Furthermore, dark current data for a novel dielectric surface passivation for LWIR devices is presented. Next, we present a technique for high-resolution, full-wafer mapping of etch pit densities on commercial (1 0 0) GaSb substrates, which allows to study the local correlation between threading dislocations in the substrate and the electro-optical pixel performance. Finally, recent performance data for 384 × 288 dual-color InAs/GaSb superlattice imagers for the mid-wavelength infrared (MWR, 3–5 μm) is given.     

Assessment of HgCdTe photodiodes and quantum well infrared photoconductors for long wavelength focal plane arrays

Recent trends in infrared detectors are towards large, electronically addressed two-dimensional arrays. In the long wavelength infrared (LWIR) spectral range HgCdTe focal plane arrays (FPAs) occupy a dominant position. However, the slow progress in the development of large LWIR photovoltaic HgCdTe infrared imaging arrays and the rapid achievements of novel semiconductor heterostructure systems have made it necessary to foresee the future development of different material technologies in fabrication large FPAs. Among the competing technologies in LWIR are the quantum well infrared photoconductors (QWIPs) based on lattice matched GaAs/AlGaAs and strained layer InGaAs/AlGaAs material systems. This paper compares the technical merits of two IR detector arrays technologies; photovoltaic HgCdTe and QWIPs. It is clearly shown that LWIR QWIP cannot compete with HgCdTe photodiode as the single device especially at higher temperature operation (>70 K) due to fundamental limitations associated with intersubband transitions. However, the advantage of HgCdTe is less distinct in temperature range below 50 K due to problems involved in HgCdTe material (p-type doping, Shockley–Read recombination, trap-assisted tunnelling, surface and interface instabilities). Even though the QWIP is a photoconductor, several of its properties such as high impedance, fast response time, long integration time, and low power consumption, well satisfy the requirements of fabrication of large FPAs. Due to the high material quality at low temperature, QWIP has potential advantages over HgCdTe for very LWIR (VLWIR) FPA applications in terms of the array size, uniformity, yield and cost of the systems.     

Towards dualband megapixel QWIP focal plane arrays

Mid-wavelength infrared (MWIR) and long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) 1024 × 1024 pixel quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP) focal planes have been demonstrated with excellent imaging performance. The MWIR QWIP detector array has demonstrated a noise equivalent differential temperature (NEΔT) of 17 mK at a 95 K operating temperature with f/2.5 optics at 300 K background and the LWIR detector array has demonstrated a NEΔT of 13 mK at a 70 K operating temperature with the same optical and background conditions as the MWIR detector array after the subtraction of system noise. Both MWIR and LWIR focal planes have shown background limited performance (BLIP) at 90 K and 70 K operating temperatures respectively, with similar optical and background conditions. In addition, we have demonstrated MWIR and LWIR pixel co-registered simultaneously readable dualband QWIP focal plane arrays. In this paper, we will discuss the performance in terms of quantum efficiency, NEΔT, uniformity, operability, and modulation transfer functions of the 1024 × 1024 pixel arrays and the progress of dualband QWIP focal plane array development work.     

Dark current analysis of InAs/GaSb superlattices at low temperatures

A limitation to the advancement of the strained-layer superlattice technology for infrared detection is unwanted high dark currents and low R₀A values, especially at long-wavelengths. In this paper, we discuss dark current characteristics of LWIR InAs/GaSb type-II superlattice detectors. Comparing devices with different dominant mechanisms, a more thorough analysis at low temperatures is provided.     

Surface plasmon-enhanced dual-band infrared absorber for VO_x-based microbolometer application

We propose a periodic structure as an extra absorption layer(i.e., absorber) based on surface plasmon resonance effects, enhancing dual-band absorption in both middle wavelength infrared(MWIR) and long wavelength infrared(LWIR)regions. Periodic gold disks are selectively patterned onto the top layer of suspended SiN/VO_2/SiN sandwich-structure.We employ the finite element method to model this structure in COMSOL Multiphysics including a proposed method of modulating the absorption peak. Simulation results show that the absorber has two absorption peaks at wavelengths λ =4.8 μm and λ = 9 μm with the absorption magnitudes more than 0.98 and 0.94 in MWIR and LWIR regions, respectively. In addition, the absorber achieves broad spectrum absorption in LWIR region, in the meanwhile, tunable dual-band absorption peaks can be achieved by variable heights of cavity as well as diameters and periodicity of disk. Thus, this designed absorber can be a good candidate for enhancing the performance of dual band uncooled infrared detector, furthermore, the manufacturing process of cavity can be easily simplified so that the reliability of such devices can be improved.     

InAs/GaInSb超晶格薄膜结构与电学性能

采用分子束外延(MBE)方法, 调节生长温度、Ⅴ/Ⅲ束流比等参数在(001)GaAs衬底上生长了InAs/GaInSb超晶格薄膜.结果表明:InAs/GaInSb超晶格薄膜的最佳生长温度在385~395 ℃, Ⅴ/Ⅲ束流比为5.7 :1~8.7 :1.高能电子衍射仪(RHEED)原位观测到清晰的GaAs层(4×2)、GaSb层(1×3)和InAs层(1×2)再构衍射条纹.获得的超晶格薄膜结构质量较好.随着温度的升高, 材料的载流子浓度和迁移率均上升.     

Material considerations for third generation infrared photon detectors

In the paper, issues associated with the development and exploitation of materials used in fabrication of third generation infrared photon detectors are discussed. In this class of detectors two main competitors, HgCdTe photodiodes and quantum well photoconductors are considered. The performance figures of merit of state-of-the-art HgCdTe and QWIP focal plane arrays (FPAs) are similar because the main limitations come from the readout circuits. The metallurgical issues of the epitaxial layers such as uniformity and number of defected elements are the serious problems in the case of long wavelength infrared (LWIR) and very LWIR (VLWIR) HgCdTe FPAs. It is predicted that superlattice based InAs/GaInSb system grown on GaSb substrate seems to be an alternative to HgCdTe with good spatial uniformity and an ability to span cutoff wavelength from 3 to 25 μm. In this context the material properties of type II superlattices are considered more in detail.     

QWIP focal plane arrays on InP substrates for single and dual band thermal imagers

Alternative material systems on InP substrate provide certain advantages for mid-wavelength infrared (MWIR), long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) and dual band MWIR/LWIR quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP) focal plane arrays (FPAs). While InP/InGaAs and InP/InGaAsP LWIR QWIPs provide much higher responsivity when compared to the AlGaAs/GaAs QWIPs, AlInAs/InGaAs system facilitates completely lattice matched single band MWIR and dual band MWIR/LWIR FPAs.We present an extensive review of the studies on InP based single and dual band QWIPs. While reviewing the characteristics of InP/InGaAs and InP/InGaAsP LWIR QWIPs at large format FPA level, we experimentally demonstrate that the cut-off wavelength of AlInAs/InGaAs QWIPs can be tuned in a sufficiently large range in the MWIR atmospheric window by only changing the quantum well (QW) width at the lattice matched composition. The cut-off wavelength can be shifted up to ～5.0 μm with a QW width of 22 Å in which case very broad spectral response (Δλ/λ_p = ～30%) and a reasonably high peak detectivity are achievable leading to a noise equivalent temperature difference as low as 14 mK (f/2) with 25 μm pitch in a 640 × 512 FPA. We also present the characteristics of InP based two-stack QWIPs with wavelengths properly tuned in the MWIR and LWIR bands for dual color detection. The results clearly demonstrate that InP based material systems display high potential for dual band MWIR/LWIR QWIP FPAs needed by third generation thermal imagers.     

The transition mechanisms of quantum-dot/quantum-well mixed-mode infrared photodetectors

The transition mechanisms of a 10-period quantum-dot (QD)/quantum-well (QW) mixed-mode infrared photodetector is investigated in this paper. Both mid-wavelength infrared (MWIR) and long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) responses are observed for the device. The lower normal incident absorption of the LWIR peak suggests that the QW intra-band transition is responsible for the response while the QD intra-band transition for the MWIR response. Due to the coexistence of MWIR and LWIR responses, the MWIR response should be resulted from one-photon transition while the LWIR response from the two-photon transition. To explain the transition mechanisms of the MMIP device, a model is proposed in this paper. The increases of both MWIR and LWIR responses with increasing measurement temperatures observed for the device are attributed to the increase of electrons in the QW ground state/wetting layer state resulted from the increase of one-photon absorption process with increasing temperatures.     

Demonstration of large format mid-wavelength infrared focal plane arrays based on superlattice and BIRD detector structures

We have demonstrated the use of bulk antimonide based materials and type-II antimonide based superlattices in the development of large area mid-wavelength infrared (MWIR) focal plane arrays (FPAs). Barrier infrared photodetectors (BIRDs) and superlattice-based infrared photodetectors are expected to outperform traditional III–V MWIR and LWIR imaging technologies and are expected to offer significant advantages over II–VI material based FPAs. We have used molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) technology to grow InAs/GaSb superlattice pin photodiodes and bulk InAsSb structures on GaSb substrates. The coupled quantum well superlattice device offers additional control in wavelength tuning via quantum well sizes and interface composition, while the BIRD structure allows for device fabrication without additional passivation. As a demonstration of the large area imaging capabilities of this technology, we have fabricated mid-wavelength 1024 × 1024 pixels superlattice imaging FPAs and 640 × 512 MWIR arrays based on the BIRD concept. These initial FPA have produced excellent infrared imagery.     

薄膜界面粗糙对双晶摇摆曲线的影响

用X射线衍射动力学理论,模拟计算InP衬底上InGaAs/AllnAs超晶格和InGaAs单层膜的X射线双晶摇摆曲线,计算结果表明:薄膜界面粗糙对单层膜的衍射峰和超晶格的零级衍射峰影响较小,但却明显影响单层膜衍射干涉条纹和超晶格的±1级卫星峰,随着平均界面粗糙度的增大,单层膜衍射干涉条纹强度减弱并趋于消失;超晶格的±1级卫星峰变弱并逐渐展宽,理论计算的模拟双晶摇摆曲线与超晶格实验曲线比较表明:高质量匹配In_0.53Ga_0.47As(85?)/Al_{0.4 关键词：}     

High quality mid-wavelength infrared InAs/GaSb superlattices by exploring the optimum molecular beam epitaxy growth process

In this paper we report on the growth of mid-wavelength infrared superlattice materials by molecular beam epitaxy. We focused on the effects of process parameters, such as arsenic beam equivalent pressure and shutter sequences, on the key material properties, such as the lattice mismatch and the surface morphology. Though a smaller As beam equivalent pressure helps to reduce the lattice mismatch between the superlattice and the GaSb substrate, the As beam equivalent pressure itself has a lower limit below which the material’s surface morphology will degrade. To achieve fully lattice-matched superlattice materials, a novel shutter sequence in the growth process was designed. With well-designed interface structures, a high quality P-I-N superlattice mid-infrared detector structure was realized. At 77 K the dark current density at −50 mV bias was 2.4 × 10⁻⁸ A/cm² and the resistance-area product (RA) at maximum (−50 mV bias) was 2.4 × 10⁶ Ω cm², and the peak detectivity was then calculated to be 9.0 × 10¹² cm Hz^1/2/W. The background limited infrared photodetector (BLIP) level can be achieved at a temperature of 113 K.     

Interface effect on superlattice quality and optical properties of InAs/GaSb type-II superlattices grown by molecular beam epitaxy

We systematically investigate the influence of InSb interface (IF) engineering on the crystal quality and optical properties of strain-balanced InAs/GaSb type-II superlattices (T2SLs). The type-II superlattice structure is 120 periods InAs (8 ML)/GaSb (6 ML) with different thicknesses of InSb interface grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). The high-resolution x-ray diffraction (XRD) curves display sharp satellite peaks, and the narrow full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the 0th is only 30-39 arcsec. From high-resolution cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) characterization, the InSb heterointerfaces and the clear spatial separation between the InAs and GaSb layers can be more intuitively distinguished. As the InSb interface thickness increases, the compressive strain increases, and the surface "bright spots" appear to be more apparent from the atomic force microscopy (AFM) results. Also, photoluminescence (PL) measurements verify that, with the increase in the strain, the bandgap of the superlattice narrows. By optimizing the InSb interface, a high-quality crystal with a well-defined surface and interface is obtained with a PL wavelength of 4.78 μ, which can be used for mid-wave infrared (MWIR) detection.     

NIR, MWIR and LWIR quantum well infrared photodetector using interband and intersubband transitions

This paper presents the design, fabrication and characterization of a QWIP photodetector capable of detecting simultaneously infrared radiation within near infrared (NIR), mid wavelength infrared (MWIR) and long wavelength infrared (LWIR). The NIR detection was achieved using interband transition while MWIR and LWIR were based on intersubband transition in the conduction band. The quantum well structure was designed using a computational tool developed to solve self-consistently the Schrödinger–Poisson equation with the help of the shooting method. Intersubband absorption in the sample was measured for the MWIR and LWIR using Fourier transform spectroscopy (FTIR) and the measured peak positions were found at 5.3 μm and 8.7 μm which agree well with the theoretical values obtained 5.0 μm and 9.0 μm for the two infrared bands which indicates the accuracy of the self-consistent model. The photodetectors were fabricated using a standard photolithography process with exposed middle contacts to allow separate bias and readout of signals from the three wavelength bands. The measured photoresponse gave three peaks at 0.84 μm, 5.0 μm and 8.5 μm wavelengths with approximately 0.5 A/W, 0.03 A/W and 0.13 A/W peak responsivities for NIR, MWIR and LWIR bands, respectively. This work demonstrates the possibility of detection of widely separated wavelength bands using interband and intersubband transitions in quantum wells.     

GexSi1-x/Si超晶格的X射线小角衍射分析

用分子束外延生长了23周期的Ge_xSi_1-x/Si超晶格,用计算机控制的衍射仪(CuK_a辐射)测量了X射线衍射曲线,共观察到13级超晶格结构的衍射峰。超晶格的周期和Ge平均含量可以根据考虑折射修正的布喇格定律得出。用光学多层膜反射理论分析衍射曲线可以确定超晶格的结构参数,第2级衍射峰与第一级峰的强度比对应于超晶格两种材料的相对厚度变化非常灵敏,通过比较实验和计算的I₂/I₁值,可以确定Si,Ge_xSi_1-x层的厚度以及合金组份x。用光学多层膜反射理谁计算得到的衍射曲线与实验曲线趋于一致。 关键词：     

Electromagnetic effects for the resonance-domain IR diffractive optics

Binary optics technology enables the manufacture of arrays of diffractive micro-optical elements which are used in many optoelectronic devices, e.g. the focal plane collection optics. The first-order diffraction grating efficiency decreases in the best part of the resonance-domain region of diffraction, i.e. when the grating period is close to the optical wavelength in the substrate material. A large fraction of the fast binary lens surface relief is built of staircase annular structures whose width is of wavelength scale. Therefore, the rigorous electromagnetic theory of gratings has been applied in this paper to calculate and analyze the diffraction effects for the resonance-domain longwave (8–12 μm) infrared (LWIR) binary optics. It is shown that electromagnetic effects limit the speed of the LWIR first-order diffractive lenses and the optical gain achievable with the diffractive lenses used as the focal plane collection optics in the IR detection systems.