Polymer-clay nanocomposites: Free-radical grafting of polyacrylamide onto organophilic montmorillonite

This paper is an account of the experiments on grafting polyacrylamide onto organophilic montmorillonite. Cloisite 20A was reacted with vinyltrichlorosilane to replace the edge hydroxyl groups of the clay with a vinyl moiety. Since the reaction liberates HCl, it was performed in the presence of sodium hydrogencarbonate to prevent the exchange of quaternary alkyl ammonium cations with H⁺ ions. Only the silanol groups on the edge of the clay react with vinyltrichlorosilane. The product maintained the same basal spacing as the precursor. The radical polymerization of the product with acrylamide as a vinyl monomer leads to chemical grafting of polyacrylamide onto montmorillonite surface. The homopolymer formed during polymerization was Soxhelt extracted from the grafted organoclay. Chemical grafting of the polymer onto Cloisite 20A was confirmed by IR spectroscopy. The interlayer and surface changes of the clay in the prepared nanocomposite materials and the grafted nano-particles were studied by XRD and SEM. Intercalated nanocomposites were obtained for clay contents of 3-7% and agglomeration occurred at higher clay loadings. The nanocomposites were studied by thermogravimertic analysis (TGA) and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMTA).     

Glycerol: a promising agent for nanodispersion and compatibility of EVA/organomodified montmorillonite nanocomposites

Ethylene‐vinyl acetate (EVA) nanocomposites were extruded with two types of organomodified montmorillonite (OMMT) and 1 wt% glycerol. The characterization of the nanocomposites was performed by transmission electron microscopy, X‐ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, and dynamic mechanical analysis. The experimental results revealed that glycerol improved the Cloisite 30B clay exfoliation and promoted a rise in aspect ratio of the Cloisite 20A clay. In the rubbery region, the EVA/G showed a higher storage modulus than the EVA, as a result of the network of hydrogen bonds. The entanglements of long chains were more effective in the restrictions of large‐scale movements than the chemical interactions. The addition of glycerol promoted greater reinforcement and an increase in the tenacity of the nanocomposites in the glassy region. The use of glycerol for the production of EVA/OMMT nanocomposites was found to be promising. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Exfoliated high-impact polystyrene/MMT nanocomposites prepared using anchored cationic radical initiator-MMT hybrid

High-impact polystyrene (HIPS)/montmorillonite (MMT) nanocomposites were prepared via in-situ polymerization of styrene in the presence of polybutadiene, using intercalated cationic radical initiator-MMT hybrid. Incomplete exfoliation of the silicate layers in the HIPS nanocomposites was observed when a bulk polymerization was employed. On the other hand, the silicate layers were efficiently exfoliated in the PS matrix during a solution polymerization, due to the low extra-gallery viscosity, which can facilitate the diffusion of styrene monomers into the clay layers. The resulting exfoliated HIPS/MMT nanocomposites were characterized by X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, particle size analysis, gel permeation chromatography, and dynamic mechanical analysis. The nanocomposites exhibited significant improvement in thermal and mechanical properties. For example, about 50% improvement in Young’s modulus was achieved with 5 wt% of clay, compared to the unmodified polymer counterpart.     

Evidences of macromolecular chains confinement of ethylene–propylene copolymer in organophilic montmorillonite nanocomposites

A random ethylene–propylene copolymer (EPM) functionalized with grafted diethylsuccinate groups was melt blended with increasing amount (to 20 wt%) of organophilic montmorillonite (OMMT) to prepare nanocomposites with different morphologies as evidenced by XRD and TEM analysis. All the nanocomposites were treated with boiling toluene that did not extract a significant amount of EPM. The increase of not-extracted EPM with the increasing quantity of OMMT suggested strong interactions of the polymer chains with the inorganic substrate. The DSC measurements of nanocomposites and the corresponding insoluble residues revealed a higher T_g values with larger amount of inorganic particles. The dielectric relaxation analysis confirmed the evidence of strong interactions among montmorillonite and the polar diethylsuccinate groups for the macromolecules trapped due to the presence of the inorganic layers. The results were discussed with reference to their relevance as an evidence of nanoconfinement at polymer clay interface and correlated with the clay basal distance variation due to the intercalation process.     

Chlorinated polyethylene nanocomposites using PCL/clay nanohybrid masterbatches

Exfoliated nanocomposites were prepared by dispersion of poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) grafted montmorillonite nanohybrids used as masterbatches in chlorinated polyethylene (CPE). The PCL-grafted clay nanohybrids with high inorganic content were synthesized by in situ intercalative polymerization of ε-caprolactone between silicate layers organo-modified by alkylammonium cations bearing two hydroxyl functions. The polymerization was initiated by tin alcoholate species derived from the exchange reaction of tin(II) bis(2-ethylhexanoate) with the hydroxyl groups borne by the ammonium cations that organomodified the clay. These highly filled PCL nanocomposites (25 wt% in inorganics) were dispersed as masterbatches in commercial chlorinated polyethylene by melt blending. CPE-based nanocomposites containing 3-5 wt% of inorganics have been prepared. The formation of exfoliated nanocomposites was assessed both by wide-angle X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. The thermal and thermo-mechanical properties were studied as a function of the filler content, by differential scanning calorimetry and dynamic mechanical analysis, respectively. The mechanical properties were also assessed by tensile tests. The Young’s modulus of CPE is increased by a decade when a PCL-grafted clay masterbatch is exfoliated to reach 5 wt% of clay in the resulting nanocomposite. The influence of PCL-grafting on the properties of these nanocomposites was investigated by comparison with materials obtained with ungrafted-PCL.     

Mechanistic examination of pre-exfoliating confinement of surface-active polystyrene nanobeads within pristine clay

Hydrophobic polymer (PS) nanoparticles preformed through an emulsifier-free emulsion polymerization method were successfully incorporated into a gallery of pristine sodium montmorillonite via interfacial cation exchange. The polymer beads confined between clay nanosheets were capable of (1) preventing the silicate layers from restacking and (2) maintaining the exfoliated state of clay. The increase in the abundance of surface groups promoted adsorption of the nanobeads onto the silicate surface and eventually led to the establishment of strong polymer-clay interactions. These findings suggest that, on the basis of the obtained pre-exfoliated clay masterbatch, the presence of strong polymer-clay interactions could improve the mechanical performance of nanocomposites.     

Cationic Grafting of Vinyl Polymers onto a Carbon Whisker,Initiated by Acylium Perchlorate Groups Introduced onto the Surface

Abstract

The cationic graft polymerization of vinyl monomers onto a carbon whisker, vapor-grown carbon fiber, initiated by acylium perchlorate groups introduced onto the surface, was investigated. The introduction of acylium perchlorate groups onto a carbon whisker was achieved by the treatment of a carbon whisker having acyl chloride groups, which were introduced by the reaction of surface carboxyl groups with thionyl chloride, with silver perchlorate in nitrobenzene. It was found that the cationic polymerization of vinyl monomers, such as styrene, indene, N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone, and n-butyl vinyl ether, is initiated by acylium perchlorate groups on a carbon whisker. In the polymerization, the corresponding vinyl polymers were grafted onto a carbon-whisker surface based on the propagation of polymer from the surface: the percentage of grafting of polystyrene and polyindene reached 42.5 and 100.3%, respectively. The percentage of polystyrene grafting decreased with increasing polymerization temperature because of preferential chain transfer reactions at higher temperatures. Polymer-grafted carbon whisker gave a stable colloidal dispersion in a good solvent for grafted polymer.     

聚苯乙烯/蒙脱土纳米复合材料的制备及结构研究

以可与苯乙烯发生共聚的阳离子表面活性剂乙烯苄基二甲基十八烷基氯化铵(VOAC)为插层处理剂改性蒙脱土(VC18-MMT),有机蒙脱土在超声波强剪切作用以及乳化剂作用下预分散在乳化剂溶液中,然后引入苯乙烯单体进行原位乳液聚合制备聚苯乙烯/蒙脱土纳米复合材料.采用XRD和TEM对纳米复合材料的结构进行了表征.结果表明,绝大多数的蒙脱土被剥离成单个片层均匀的分散在聚合物基体中;动态力学分析表明,纳米复合材料的储能模量和玻璃化温度均有所增加,而动态损耗有所降低;接枝在蒙脱土片层上的聚合物通过与锂离子进行阳离子交换反应提取下来,采用GPC和NMR对接枝聚合物的结构进行了表征,结果表明,接枝聚合物是较基体分子量低且分布很宽的苯乙烯和乙烯苄基二甲基十八烷基氯化铵的共聚物,计算表明每一个共聚物分子链上平均含有大约25个乙烯苄基二甲基十八烷基氯化铵分子.     

Effective grafting of polymers onto ultrafine silica surface: Photopolymerization of vinyl monomers initiated by the system consisting of trichloroacetyl groups on the surface and Mn2(CO)10

The effective grafting of vinyl polymers onto an ultrafine silica surface was successfully achieved by the photopolymerization of vinyl monomers initiated by the system consisting of trichloroacetyl groups on the surface with Mn₂(CO)₁₀ under UV irradiation at 25 °C. The introduction of trichloroacetyl groups onto the surface of silica was achieved by the reaction of trichloroacetyl isocyanate with surface amino groups, which were introduced by the treatment of silica with 3‐aminopropyltriethoxysilane. During the polymerization, the corresponding polymers were effectively grafted onto the surface, based on the propagation of polymer from surface radicals formed by the interaction of trichloroacetyl groups and Mn₂(CO)₁₀. The percentage of poly(methyl methacrylate) grafting onto the silica reached 714.6% after 90 min. The grafting efficiency (proportion of grafted polymer to total polymer formed) in the polymerization of methyl methacrylate was very high, about 80%, indicating the depression of formation of ungrafted polymer. Polymer‐grafted silica gave a stable colloidal dispersion in good solvents for grafted polymer. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 39: 2157–2163, 2001     

Polymerization of vinyl monomers in the presence of silica having surface functional groups

The surface of silica was modified by mercaptopropyl, chloropropyl, aminopropyl, and methacryloxypropyl groups by the treatment of silica with the corresponding silane coupling agents, and the effects of functional groups on the surface on the polymerization of vinyl monomers initiated by benzoyl peroxide or 2,2-azobisisobutyronitrile were investigated. Although the rate of the polymerization of vinyl monomers in the presence of silica was almost equal to that in the absence of silica, a part of polymer formed was grafted onto silica surface. The polymerization was considerably retarded in the presence of these functionalized silicas and the corresponding polymers were effectively grafted onto the surface. The molecular weight of ungrafted polymer formed in the presence of the functionalized silica was lower than that formed in the presence of unmodified silica. This indicates that the chain transfer reaction of growing polymer radical to functionalized silica surface forms radicals on the surface, which then couples with growing polymer radical and/or reinitiates the polymerization to give rise to the grafting of polymers onto the surface. In the case of silica having methacryloxypropyl groups, the grafting based on the copolymerization of vinyl monomer with the surface methacryloxypropyl groups was considered to successfully proceed.     

Gas barrier properties of poly(ε‐caprolactone)/clay nanocomposites: Influence of the morphology and polymer/clay interactions

Poly(ε‐caprolactone)/montmorillonite nanocomposites were prepared maintaining a constant inorganic content with three means: melt blending of poly(ε‐caprolactone) with natural or organomodified clays, in situ polymerization of ε‐caprolactone in the presence of organomodified clays, and initiation of ε‐caprolactone polymerization from the silicate layer with appropriate organomodified montmorillonites and activator. In this last case, the polymer chains were grafted to the silicate layers and it was possible to tune up the grafting density. The presence of clays did not modify the polymer crystallinity. It was shown that the in situ polymerization process from the clay surface improved the clay dispersion. The gas barrier properties of the different composite systems were discussed both as a function of the clay dispersion and of the matrix/clay interactions. The highest barrier properties were obtained for an exfoliated morphology and the highest grafting density. Similar evolution of the permeability and the diffusion coefficients was observed. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 43: 205–214, 2005     

Photografting of polymers onto nanosized silica surface initiated by eosin moieties immobilized onto the surface

The photograft polymerization of various vinyl monomers onto nanosized silica surfaces was investigated. It was initiated by eosin moieties introduced onto the silica surface. The preparation of the silica with eosin moieties was achieved by the reaction of eosin with benzyl chloride groups on the silica surface.These were introduced by the reaction of surface silanol groups with 4‐(chloromethyl)phenyltrimethoxysilane in the presence of t‐butyl ammonium bromide as a phase‐transfer catalyst. The photopolymerization of various vinyl monomers, such as styrene, acrylamide, acrylic acid, and acrylonitrile was successfully initiated by eosin moieties on the silica surface in the presence of ascorbic acid as a reducing agent and by oxygen. The corresponding polymers were grafted from the silica surface. The grafting efficiency (percentage of grafted polymer to total polymer formed) in the photoinitiation system was much larger than that in the radical polymerization initiated by surface radicals; these radicals were formed by the thermal decomposition of azo groups introduced onto the silica surface. It was found that the polymer‐grafted silica gave stable dispersions in good solvents of grafted polymer and the wettability of the surfaces can be easily controlled by grafting of polymers. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 43: 600–606, 2005     

Grafting of polymers onto and/or from silica surface during the polymerization of vinyl monomers in the presence of γ‐ray‐irradiated silica

The effects of radicals on silica surface, which were formed by γ‐ray irradiation, on the polymerization of vinyl monomers were investigated. It was found that the polymerization of styrene was remarkably retarded in the presence of γ‐ray‐irradiated silica above 60 °C, at which thermal polymerization of styrene is readily initiated. During the polymerization, a part of polystyrene formed was grafted onto the silica surface but percentage of grafting was very small. On the other hand, no retardation of the polymerization of styrene was observed in the presence of γ‐ray‐irradiated silica below 50 °C; the polymerization tends to accelerate and polystyrene was grafted onto the silica surface. Poly(vinyl acetate) and poly(methyl methacrylate) (MMA) were also grafted onto the surface during the polymerization in the presence of γ‐ray‐irradiated silica. The grafting of polymers onto the silica surface was confirmed by thermal decomposition GC‐MS. It was considered that at lower temperature, the grafting based on the propagation of polystyrene from surface radical (“grafting from” mechanism) preferentially proceeded. On the contrary, at higher temperature, the coupling reaction of propagating polymer radicals with surface radicals (“grafting onto” mechanism) proceeded to give relatively higher molecular weight polymer‐grafted silica. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 44: 2972–2979, 2006     

Preparation of polystyrene/montmorillonite nanocomposites using a new radical initiator-montmorillonite hybrid via in situ intercalative polymerization

Polystyrene/montmorillonite (PS/MMT) nanocomposites were prepared by in situ free radical intercalative polymerization, using 1, 3 and 5 wt% of a new cationic radical initiator-MMT hybrid. The corresponding nanocomposites were designated as PS/MMT-1, PS/MMT-3 and PS/MMT-5, respectively. The silicate layers were well exfoliated and randomly dispersed in the PS/MMT-1 and PS/MMT-3, but were less exfoliated in the PS/MMT-5, due to the predominant extra-gallery polymerization over the intra-gallery polymerization. The unique properties of nanocomposites resulted from the strong interactions between the nano-sized silicate layer surfaces and the polymer chains. The onset temperature of thermal degradation, and the glass transition temperature, increased with increasing hybrid content, up to 3 wt%. The molecular weights of the PS in the PS/MMT-1 and PS/MMT-3 were less than those calculated theoretically, due to the predominant intra-gallery polymerization.     

Energitics of micellizaion of sodium n-dodecyl sulfate at physiological conditions using isothermal titration calorimetry

The curing kinetics of nanocomposites based on phenolic resol cured with triethylamine (TEA) containing different amounts of organic montmorillonite was analyzed by differential scanning calorimetry. Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose (KAS) model-free kinetics has been applied to correlate the dynamic cure behaviour in the presence of modified montmorillonite. The effect in the curing of the use of different clay modifiers has also been studied. A commercial clay with hydroxyl groups (Cloisite 30B) and a customized montmorillonite (PheMMT) whose reactive groups induce condensation reactions with the resol matrix have been used. Strong dependency of activation energy on apparent conversion has been observed for all compounds.     

Efficacy of clay content and microstructure of curing agents on the structure–property relationship of new‐generation polyurethane nanocomposites

The physicomechanical properties of new polyurethanes (PUs) derived from toluene diisocyanate, poly(propylene glycol), and cured by third‐generation hyperbranched polyester polyol (HB3), trimethylolpropane (TMP), or glycerol and their nanocomposites have been investigated. An apparent microphase‐segregated morphology of PU nanocomposites cured by HB3 has been observed by transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. Morphological studies reveal regions of mostly exfoliated and some intercalated morphology in the case of the nanocomposites, which have been further ascertained by X‐ray diffraction analysis. The HB3‐cured PU nanocomposite containing 8 wt% of modified montmorillonite (Cloisite 30B) clay shows approximately 140% increase in tensile strength along with improvement in thermal and dynamic mechanical properties in comparison with the control hyperbranched PU. It has also been found from Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis that the extent of tethering reactions between the polymer chains carrying residual –NCO groups and the reactive hydroxyl (?OH) groups of HB3 is significant, and the nanofiller has been found to preferentially react with the –NCO group of the prepolymer. Furthermore, the properties of HB3‐cured PU have been compared with the glycerol and TMP‐cured PUs and their nanocomposites. The physicomechanical and thermal properties for nanocomposites of HB3‐cured PUs are superior to those of the conventionally cured PUs. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Functional colloidal particles stabilized by layered silicate with hydrophilic face and hydrophobic polymer brushes

In this study, we describe a new strategy for producing narrowly dispersed functional colloidal particles stabilized by a nanocomposite with hydrophilic clay faces and hydrophobic polystyrene (PS) brushes on the edges. This method involves preparation of polymer brushes on the edges of clay layers and Pickering suspension polymerization of styrene in the presence of the nanocomposites. PS brushes on the edges of clay layers were prepared by atom transfer radical polymerization. X‐ray diffraction and thermogravimetric analysis results indicated that PS chains were grafted to the edges of clay platelets. Transmission electron microscope results showed that different morphologies of clay‐PS particles could be obtained in different solvents. In water, clay‐PS particles aggregated together, in which PS chains collapsed forming nanosized hydrophobic domains and hydrophilic clay faces stayed in aqueous phase. In toluene, clay‐PS particles formed face‐to‐face structure. Narrowly dispersed PS colloidal particles stabilized by clay‐PS were prepared by suspension polymerization. Because of the negatively charged clay particles on the surface, the zeta potential of the PS colloidal particles was negative. Positively charged poly(2‐vinyl pyridine) (P2VP) chains were adsorbed to the surface of PS colloidal particles in aqueous solution at a low pH value, and gold nanoparticles were prepared in P2VP brushes. Such colloidal particles may find important applications in a variety of fields including waterborne adhesives, paints, catalysis of chemical reactions, and protein separation. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 47: 1535–1543, 2009     

Synthesis and Rheology of Intercalated Polystyrene/Na+‐Montmorillonite Nanocomposites

Polystyrene (PS)/clay nanocomposites were synthesized by the emulsion polymerization of styrene in the presence of sodium ion‐exchanged montmorillonite (Na⁺‐MMT), demonstrating that the strongly hydrophobic PS was intercalated into the hydrophilic silicate layers. The nanocomposites were examined by means of X‐ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis. The rheological properties of the PS/Na⁺‐MMT nanocomposites were also studied to exhibit more pronounced shear thinning behavior with increasing clay content.     

Radical Graft Polymerization of Vinyl Monomers Initiated by A20 Groups Introduced Onto a Carbon Black Surface: Effect of azo Groups on Graft Polymerization

The radical graft polymerization of vinyl monomers from carbon black initiated by azo groups introduced onto the surface was investigated. The introduction of azo groups onto carbon black surface was achieved by three methods: the reaction of 2,2′-azobis[2-(2-imidazolin-2-yl)propane] (AIP) with (1) epoxide groups, which were introduced by the reaction of carbon black with chlorometh-yloxirane; (2) acyl chloride groups, which were introduced by the reaction of carboxyl groups on the surface with thionyl chloride; and (3) 3-chloroformyl-1-cyano-1-methylpropyl groups, which were introduced by the reaction of carbon black with 4,4′-azobis(4-cyanovaleric acid) and then thionyl chloride. The amount of azo groups introduced onto the surface by the above methods was determined to be 0.07-0.19 mmol/g. The graft polymerization of methyl methacrylate was found to be initiated by azo groups introduced onto the carbon black surface. During the polymerization, poly(methyl methacrylate) was effectively grafted onto carbon black through propagation of the polymer from the radical produced on the surface by the decomposition of the azo groups. The percentage of grafting using carbon black having azo groups introduced by method 1 increased to 40%. It was also found that the graft polymerization of several vinyl monomers such as styrene, acrylonitrile, and acrylic acid was initiated by the azo groups introduced onto the surface and the corresponding polymer was effectively grafted onto the surface. Furthermore, the effect of the amount of carbon black having azo groups on the graft polymerization was investigated.     

蒙脱土负载型引发剂的制备及在苯乙烯乳液聚合中的应用

通过正离子交换将引发剂AIBA负载在蒙脱土上制得负载型引发剂V50-MMT.进而采用原位乳液聚合方法引发苯乙烯聚合制备PS/MMT纳米复合材料.采用XRD、TGA、DSC、TEM和抽提等方法对负载型引发剂和纳米复合材料进行了表征.结果表明,负载过程中引发剂AIBA进入了MMT的片层之间;聚合过程中介于片层间的引发剂因发生分解一方面产生自由基引发St聚合,另一方面MMT发生了剥离分散;由此法制备的PS/MMT纳米复合材料,MMT片层无规、均匀地分散于PS基体中,片层厚度在几个纳米至十几个纳米之间,长度为几十至几百个纳米不等;大量的PS链段以化学键接枝在MMT的片层上,接枝在MMT片层上的PS的分子量及其分布与游离的PS不同.