The formation of micro/nanoparticles in laser-enhanced electroplating with continuous-wave and pulsed Nd-YAG laser interactions

The copper particles generated by the laser-enhanced electroplating method have been investigated in this study, and the results have been examined at various process conditions. The electrolyte jet of copper sulfate was impinged on a stainless steel electrode and irradiated with a Nd-YAG laser at continuous-wave (CW) and Q-switched output modes, respectively, to generate the particle size distribution from micro- to nano-scale.According to the electrochemical dynamics theory, the mechanism of the proposed technique for the particles formation is mainly due to the thermal effects from the laser interaction in electroplating. In the experiments, the laser energy absorbed by the electrolyte jet and the temperature rise of the electrode during the laser radiation has been measured. In the numerical simulation, the temperature fields of the impinging jet of the laser nozzle were calculated. It shows that the growth of the particle is significantly corresponding to the laser power and pulse mode of the laser interaction.     

A statistical approach to determine process parameter impact in Nd:YAG laser drilling of IN718 and Ti-6Al-4V sheets

The numerous unique advantages afforded by pulsed Nd:YAG laser systems have led to their increasing utility for producing high aspect ratio holes in a wide range of materials. Notwithstanding the growing industrial acceptance of the technique, the increasingly tighter geometrical tolerances and more stringent hole quality requirements of modern industrial components demand that “defects” such as taper, recast, spatter etc., in laser-drilled holes are minimized. Process parameters like pulse energy, pulse repetition rate, pulse duration, focal position, nozzle standoff, type of gas and gas pressure of the assist gas are known to significantly influence hole quality during laser drilling. The present study reports the use of Taguchi design of experiments technique to study the effects of the above process variables on the quality of the drilled holes and ascertain optimum processing conditions. Minimum taper in the drilled hole was considered as the desired target response. The entire study was conducted in three phases:(a) screening experiments, to identify process variables that critically influence taper in laser drilled holes, (b) Optimization experiments, to ascertain the set of parameters that would yield minimum taper and (c) validation trials, to assess the validity of the experimental procedures and results. Results indicate that laser drilling with focal position on the surface of the material being drilled and employing low level values of pulse duration and pulse energy represents the ideal conditions to achieve minimum taper in laser-drilled holes. Thorough assessment of results also reveals that the laser-drilling process, optimized considering taper in the drilled hole as the target response, leads to very significant improvements in respect of other hole quality attributes of interest such as spatter and recast as well.     

The effect of laser peak power and pulse width on the hole geometry repeatability in laser percussion drilling

In this work, the two main factors that influence the repeatability of the laser percussion drilling process are identified. Experimental parametric analysis was carried out to correlate the laser parameters with the repeatability of a laser percussion drilling process. The experiment was conducted using a flash lamp pumped Nd:YAG laser to drill 2 mm thick mild steel sheets. The relationship between the percentage standard deviation (PSD) of entrance hole diameter, hole circularity and the operating parameters is established. Thirty-five holes were drilled and analysed for each set of identical laser parameters. The PSD of entrance hole diameter ranges between 1.47% and 4.78% for an operating window of 3.5–7 kW peak power, and 1–3 ms pulse width. The circularity of the entrance hole (defined as the ratio between the minimum and maximum diameters of the hole) ranges from 0.94 to 0.87, and is found to correlate with repeatability. The work shows that higher peak power, and shorter pulse width gives better hole geometry repeatability. The effect of melt ejection on hole geometry repeatability is also investigated. Melt ejection and spatter formation have been found to contribute to the poor repeatability of the process.     

超声辅助射流电解加工的仿真及实验*

为了提高射流电解加工小孔的效率及质量,提出了一种压电超声波换能器配合锥形电解液腔室的装置,将超声波引入电解液中,对射流电解加工存在的缺陷进行弥补。搭建了超声辅助射流电解加工装置,分析了其加工原理。对模型进行了声场仿真和射流电解加工仿真,初步验证了超声辅助效果。实验验证了超声波对射流电解加工的加工速率、小孔形状的辅助效果,结果表明：在多组NaNO₃电解液浓度、液压泵转速条件下,1.5 min内超声波对射流电解加工的加工速率可提高9%～15%;同时超声波对射流电解加工的过切现象有所改善。     

Numerical simulation of process dynamics during laser beam drilling with short pulses

In the last years, laser beam drilling became increasingly important for many technical applications as it allows the contactless production of high quality drill holes. So far, mainly short laser pulses are of industrial relevance, as they offer a good compromise between precision and efficiency and combine high ablation efficiency with low thermal damage of the workpiece. Laser beam drilling in this pulse length range is still a highly thermal process. There are two ablation mechanisms: evaporation and melt expulsion. In order to achieve high quality processing results, a basic process understanding is absolutely necessary. Yet, process observations in laser beam drilling suffer from both the short time scales and the restricted accessibility of the interaction zone. Numerical simulations offer the possibility to acquire additional knowledge of the process as they allow a direct look into the drill hole during the ablation process. In this contribution, a numerical finite volume multi-phase simulation model for laser beam drilling with short laser pulses shall be presented. The model is applied for a basic study of the ablation process with μs and ns laser pulses. The obtained results show good qualitative correspondence with experimental data.     

Oxygen assisted laser cutting mechanism—a laminar boundary layer approach including the combustion process

The present study examines the combined effects of chemical reactions taking place between a gas jet and molten metal, the cooling effect of the jet and the evaporation of metal, during a CO₂ laser cutting process. A laminar boundary layer approach was used to develop a theoretical model for the oxygen gas jet laser cutting mechanism. An experiment was carried out to monitor the keyhole formation using a video recorder and detect the light emitted from the entrance and exist surfaces of the workpiece using a fibre-optic probe during the cutting process. The experimental study was extended to employ two different workpiece materials (stainless steel and mild steel) at two thicknesses, and varying oxygen assisting gas pressures. It is found that the theoretical model developed in the present study is valid for a cutting speed of about 30 mm s⁻¹ and all jet velocities up to sonic, since the effect of shock is excluded in the model.     

Micro-machining of silicon wafer in air and under water

Laser ablation micro-machining tests are conducted on silicon wafer, both in air and under flowing water stream, with the use of 355 nm-X AVIA laser. Effects of laser pulse frequency, power level, scan velocity and focal plane position on the associated laser spatter deposition (in air), irradiated areas (under flowing water film) and taper are investigated. It shows that low frequency, i.e. 30–40 kHz, and high peak power result in smaller spatter and irradiated areas, and the hole taper decreases with increase in pulse frequency. Increase in the laser fluence broadens both the areas and increases the hole taper. Both areas enlarge with the increase of scanning velocity of more than 3 mm s^?1. The scan velocity has no effect on hole taper in air environment but inconsistent hole taper is obtained under flowing water stream. Furthermore, moving the focal plane position below the workpiece surface contributes relatively smaller areas of spatter deposition, irradiation and taper in comparison to zero focal plane position. Finally, the differences between laser ablation in air and under water are identified. The reduction in the spatter deposition and irradiated areas around the perimeter of the ablated hole and a smaller taper with the use of laser trepan drilling method in air and under water machining are investigated in this paper.     

The effects of process parameters on spatter deposition in laser percussion drilling

This paper reports on the characterisation and analysis of spatter deposition during laser drilling in Nimonic 263 alloy for various laser processing parameters using a fibre-optic delivered 400 W Nd:YAG laser. The principal findings are a large proportion of the spatter (approx. > 70%) was deposited due to the initial laser pulses (before beam breakthrough) required to drill a through-hole. Short pulse widths, low peak powers and high pulse frequencies generated smaller spatter deposition areas. At high pulse frequencies, the spatter distribution/thickness can be altered as a result of laser-ejected material interaction. Focal plane positions between −0.5 and +1.5 mm produced relatively similar spatter areas of about 14 mm². As a result of the reduction in the material removed per pulse, a longer focal length of 160 mm generated smaller areas of spatter deposition in comparison to a shorter focal length of 120 mm. In addition, a generic relationship between the spatter area and d_entrance/d_exit with increasing total laser energy has been established.     

Laser through-hole drilling and laser cutting in teflon

We report a novel technique for laser high-speed drilling and cutting in teflon films. The new laser drilling surpasses the conventional techniques in simplicity, throughput and spatial resolution. The laser cutting and drilling process consists of three simple steps. First, a thin absorbing layer (in this case 300 Å of gold) is deposited on the teflon to allow for laser absorption. Second, the drilling is performed by pulsed-laser irradiation at the rate of one hole per pulse. The irradiation process does not completely open the holes in which debris still remain. Third, the ultrasonic cleaning in water is used to remove the modified and weakly bound material inside the drilled holes, leaving behind 50 m diameter through holes in 25 m thick teflon sheets. The drilling process-window is well mapped. The cutting process is obtained by fast scanning the laser beam at laser powers above a threshold value. This new technique is desirable for packaging because of its drilling speed as high as 60 000 holes per minute, its fast cutting and its low laser equipment cost.     

Analysis of materials modifications caused by UV laser micro drilling of via holes in AlGaN/GaN transistors on SiC

Pulsed UV laser drilling can be applied to fabricate vertical electrical interconnects (vias) for AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility transistor devices on single-crystalline silicon carbide (SiC) substrate. Through-wafer micro holes with a diameter of 50-100 μm were formed in 400 μm thick bulk 4H-SiC by a frequency-tripled solid-state laser (355 nm) with a pulse width of ≤30 ns and a focal spot size of ∼15 μm. The impact of laser machining on the material system in the vicinity of micro holes was investigated by means of micro-Raman spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy. After removing the loosely deposited debris by etching in buffered hydrofluoric acid, a layer of <4 μm resolidified material remains at the side walls of the holes. The thickness of the resolidified layer depends on the vertical distance to the hole entry as observed by scanning electron microscopy. Micro-Raman spectra indicate a change of internal strain due to laser drilling and evidence the formation of nanocrystalline silicon (Si). Microstructure analysis of the vias’ side walls using cross sectional TEM reveals altered degree of crystallinity in SiC. Layers of heavily disturbed SiC, and nanocrystalline Si are formed by laser irradiation. The layers are separated by 50-100 nm thick interface regions. No evidence of extended defects, micro cracking or crystal damage was found beneath the resolidified layer. The precision of UV laser micro ablation of SiC using nanosecond pulses is not limited by laser-induced extended crystal defects.     

Laser pulse optimization for practical laser drilling

Laser drilling is a common commercially developed technique for material processing. From the application viewpoint, it is the end product for a laser system, for instance a drilled hole, that matters. Laser pulse profile is the most important parameter controlling the laser hole drilling process. An efficient and practical method is therefore needed to develop a relationship between the pulse parameters and the depth of hole produced in a known material. In the present study, dimensionless groups are developed to optimize laser pulse parameters to give information on workpiece materials. Consequently, an optimal laser pulse for drilling an aluminum workpiece is predicted.     

The influence of temporal pulse train modulation during laser percussion drilling

The temporal pulse train modulation during laser percussion drilling was found to effect significant changes to the material ejection processes. In particular, distinct differences in the material ejection processes have been observed between a temporal pulse train shaping technique termed as sequential pulse delivery pattern control (SPDPC) and the normal delivery pattern (NDP), wherein the parameters of successive laser pulses were constant. Due to the reduced upward material removal fractions in SPDPC drilling, the spatter deposition area was reduced from approximately 6.7 to 2.7 mm². In addition, the melt layer thicknesses at the hole bottom were significantly increased from 11–61 to 18–369 μm. Such changes were identified as being due to the low laser pulse intensities before beam breakthrough associated with the SPDPC method. It was observed that the use of the linearly increasing SPDPC method increased the downward material removal fractions, from 20% to 28% observed in NDP drilling, to 34%–39%. Such an increase in the downward material ejection mechanism in SPDPC drilling was identified as being primarily due to the pointed blind-hole profile generated before the onset of beam breakthrough. The work has shown that modulating the entire pulse train in laser percussion drilling could control the material ejection processes. Furthermore, the fundamental elements of the SPDPC technique are given in terms of the rate of energy deposition and total pulse train energy.     

A power ramped pulsed mode laser piercing technique for improved CO2 laser profile cutting

Laser piercing is one of the inevitable requirements of laser profile cutting process and it has a direct bearing on the quality of the laser cut profiles. We have developed a novel power ramped pulsed mode (PRPM) laser piercing technique to produce much finer pierced holes and to achieve a better control on the process parameters compared to the existing methodology based on normal pulsed mode (NPM). Experiments were carried out with both PRPM and NPM laser piercing on 1.5-mm-thick mild steel using an in-house developed high-power transverse flow continuous wave (CW)-CO₂ laser. Significant improvements in the spatter, circularity of the pierced hole and reproducibility were achieved through the PRPM technique. We studied, in detail, the dynamics of processes involved in PRPM laser piercing and compared that with those of the NPM piercing.     

Formation and Characteristics of Through Holes with Picosecond-Laser Helical Drilling on Alloy Material

Precision drilling can improve the microhole quality by yielding a reduced recast layer thickness and no heat-affected zone. We evaluate the quality of the helical drilled holes, e.g., the recast layer, microcracks, and circularity by scanning electron microscopy. We investigate the overlap rate of the laser beam and find its influence on the efficiency of through-hole machining. The microhole entrance, exit, and side walls are smooth, without an accumulation of spattering material and the formation of a recast layer and microcracks. Optimum parameters for drilling through holes on alloy material GH2132 are a thickness of 500 μm, a laser fluence of 3.06 · 10^?2 J/mm², a pulse repetition rate of 100 kHz, and a helical speed of 60 rev/s. The tapering phenomenon can be avoided by using a helical system with a rotating stage, and the hole circularity is fairly good. Picosecond laser helical drilling can be effective for manufacturing microholes with a high quality. The development of high-power picosecond laser would promote picosecond laser drilling with future industrial relevance.     

An investigation into melt flow dynamics during repetitive pulsed laser drilling of transparent media

This paper presents an investigation into the dynamics of repetitive pulsed laser drilling of a visually transparent media using a CO₂ laser source. This enabled the use of a high-speed imaging system for observing, in real time, the behaviour of the drilling process in the laser drilled cavity of 1.5 mm diameter holes of up to 18.5 mm in depth. The work revealed that the instantaneous drilling velocity within each laser pulse can vary considerably from the average drilling velocity as a result of the non-uniform temporal pulse shape and the oscillation of the melt ejection rate. During beam breakthrough, both upward and downward melt ejections were observed to occur inside the drilled hole for a short period of time, after which the material was ejected through the exit end of the holes. It has been shown in this work that the downward melt flow velocity increases with hole depth for a positively tapered hole (from 0.09 to 1.43 m/s) and decreases with hole depth for a negatively tapered hole geometry (from 0.4 to 0.1 m/s), as a result of the change in the assist gas velocity inside the drilled hole with respect to the hole taper geometry. The mechanisms of forming the positively and negatively tapered holes in the transparent media have been correlated with the hole geometry and melt flow velocity. The work has demonstrated a new method of studying the melt dynamics in laser drilling.     

In-situ laser material process monitoring using a cladding power detection technique

Progress in laser material processing may require real-time monitoring and process control for consistent quality and productivity. We report a method of in-situ monitoring of laser metal cutting and drilling using cladding power monitoring of an optical fibre beam delivery system—a technique which detects the light reflected or scattered from the workpiece. The light signal carries information about the quality of the process. Experiments involving drilling and cutting of two samples, a thin aluminum foil and a 2-mm thick stainless steel plate, confirmed the effectiveness of this method.     

Femtosecond laser drilling of crystalline and multicrystalline silicon for advanced solar cell fabrication

The rear contact solar cell concept has been implemented to increase the solar cell efficiency. Practically, it necessitates rapid fabrication of a large number of via holes to form low-loss current paths. It is not a trivial task to drill a number of microscopic holes through a typical Si wafer of ??200???m thickness at reasonable processing throughput and yield. In this research, a femtosecond laser is employed to drill via holes in both crystalline silicon (c-Si) and multicrystalline silicon (mc-Si) thin wafers of ??170???m thickness with various laser parameters such as number of laser shots and pulse energy. Since a significantly high pulse energy compared to ablation threshold is mainly applied, aiming to achieve a rapid drilling process, the femtosecond laser beam is subjected to complex non-linear characteristics. Therefore, the relative placement of the sample with respect to the laser focal position is also rigorously examined. While the non-linear effect at high pulse energy regime is complex, it also facilitates the drilling process in terms of achieving high-aspect ratio, for example, by extending the effective depth of focus by non-linear effect. Cross-sectional morphological analysis in conjunction with on-line emission and shadowgraph imaging are carried out in order to elucidate the drilling mechanism.     

大功率盘形激光焊接飞溅动态识别和特征分析

提出了一种识别飞溅动态并基于飞溅特征分析焊接状态的方法。以304不锈钢板为试验对象,进行大功率盘形激光平板堆焊试验。利用高速相机捕捉紫外波段和可见光波段的飞溅图像,通过图像处理提取飞溅特征参数,包括质心位置、面积、灰度、平均灰度和半径。基于飞溅特征参数建立飞溅搜索信息库和相似度函数,用于识别飞溅、计算飞溅体积和灰度以及评估焊接状态。通过焊缝宽度与飞溅特征信息的比较,研究焊接状态与飞溅特征参数之间的内在关系。对飞溅特征与焊接状态之间关系进行了试验分析,结果表明,激光焊接过程中飞溅的体积和灰度值增大,焊缝宽度会相应减小,通过飞溅特征参数可有效监测和评估大功率盘形激光焊接过程的状态。     

Optimization of an off-axis nozzle for assist gas injection in laser fusion cutting

The aerodynamic features of the gas flow during laser fusion cutting are an essential factor influencing the cut performance. For this reason it has been a subject of some studies to explain the interactions of the gas jet with the workpiece and to design different gas injection systems with the aim of preventing the drawbacks of the conventional cutting heads.An off-axis cutting head with a de Laval nozzle to inject a supersonic gas jet has been previously demonstrated to be an effective design to achieve a complete removal of the molten material from the cutting front and to avoid the formation of the recast layer. In the present work, the fundamentals and procedures to adjust the main factors determining the efficiency of this gas injection system are described. Specifically, the gas flow inside the cut kerf is analysed by means of flow visualization using the Schlieren technique.     

Shadowgraphic imaging of material removal during laser drilling with a long pulse excimer laser

After the development of a novel XeCl excimer laser with a nearly diffraction-limited beam and 175 ns pulse length, research was done on different industrial applications of this laser. Hole drilling, one of these applications, was studied extensively. A better understanding of the drilling process is necessary to optimise the drilling efficiency and to control the quality of the holes. A shadowgraphic imaging technique was used for studying the removal of material from the hole and the absorption of the laser beam by this removed material. Images were made at successive times both during and after the laser pulse.In drilling of thin foils, it was shown that the material was ejected mainly after the laser pulse. A comparison of different materials showed that the drilling process should be optimised for each material independently. Furthermore, the plume was found to be not fully transparent for processing materials with a strong absorption line at or near the laser wavelength. The correlation between material and drilling speed suggests improved energy transfer and improved melt ejection for the materials with this absorption. PACS 42.62.Cf; 52.38.Dx; 52.38.Mf