Development of a Halide‐Free Aluminium‐Based Catalyst for the Synthesis of Cyclic Carbonates from Epoxides and Carbon Dioxide

Kinetic studies of the synthesis of glycerol carbonate from glycidol and carbon dioxide have been carried out. These showed that under suitable reaction conditions, bimetallic aluminium(salen) complex 4 is able to catalyse the conversion of epoxides into the corresponding cyclic carbonates without the need for a co‐catalyst.     

Synthesis of Cyclic Carbonates Catalysed by Chromium and Aluminium Salphen Complexes

Chromium and aluminium salphen complexes have been found to display remarkable catalytic activity in the synthesis of cyclic carbonates from a range of epoxides and carbon dioxide. The Al(salphen) complex is more reactive towards terminal epoxides at ambient temperature and pressure, whereas the Cr(salphen) complex exhibits higher catalytic activity towards more challenging internal epoxides at elevated temperature and pressure.     

Inter- and intramolecular phosphonium salt cocatalysis in cyclic carbonate synthesis catalysed by a bimetallic aluminium(salen) complex

Quaternary phosphonium salts can be used as cocatalysts for the conversion of epoxides and carbon dioxide into cyclic carbonates catalysed by bimetallic aluminium(salen) complexes at ambient temperature and one atmosphere pressure. The phosphonium groups could also be attached onto the salen ligands of the bimetallic aluminium(salen) complex to form one-component catalysts, and in this case the catalytic activity was heavily influenced by the solubility of the catalyst in the epoxide substrate. The results are consistent with a previously proposed catalytic cycle for cyclic carbonate synthesis catalysed by bimetallic aluminium(salen) complexes.     

Significant rate acceleration in carbonate synthesis from carbon dioxide and oxiranes using dimethyl carbonate as a recyclable medium

The synthesis of cyclic carbonates by the reaction of oxiranes and carbon dioxide in the presence of catalytic amount of tetrabutylammonium bromide in dimethylcarbonate without any metal catalyst is reported. Significant rate acceleration in the reaction is observed in dimethylcarbonate as compared to the other solvents. Under the reaction conditions of 100 °C and 2.1 MPa in dimethyl carbonate, maximum conversion and selectivity is achieved. The dimethylcarbonate containing tetrabutylammonium bromide catalyst can be easily recovered and reused for at least six recycles with the same selectivity.     

Synthesis of Cyclic Carbonates from CO2 and Epoxides Catalyzed by Hexaalkylguanidinium Halides

Hexaalkylguanidinium halides exhibit an efficient catalytic activity in the synthesis of cyclic carbonates from epoxides and carbon dioxide. By this method cyclic carbonates can be obtained in a high yield and a high selectivity at a low temperature and atmospheric pressure. This procedure is easy for the product isolation and recycling of the catalyst.     

新型Br?nsted酸性离子液体催化二氧化碳与环氧化合物偶联反应

设计合成了一系列由碳链长度可调节的Br?nsted酸中心阳离子及Lewis碱中心阴离子构成的酸性离子液体,,并应用于二氧化碳与环氧化合物的偶联反应合成环碳酸酯。考察了离子液体结构以及温度、压力和催化剂用量等参数的影响。结果表明,具有长碳链的离子液体表现出高催化活性及可重复使用性能。离子液体的酸性影响催化活性。     

二氧化碳与环氧化合物合成环状碳酸酯的研究进展

二氧化碳作为温室气体和储量大、无毒且可循环利用的碳资源,其化学利用受到了人们的广泛关注. 二氧化碳与环氧化合物通过环加成反应制备环状碳酸酯是二氧化碳化学法利用最为有效的途径之一. 本文综述了近年来该反应的研究进展,讨论了催化剂作用下的反应机理.     

SnCl4-organic base: Highly efficient catalyst system for coupling reaction of CO2 and epoxides

A simple and highly efficient catalyst system of SnCl₄-organic base was developed to catalyze the coupling reaction of carbon dioxide and epoxides in very mild condition to yield the cyclic carbonates. The proposed mechanism was described in terms of in situ ¹¹⁹Sn NMR investigations.     

超临界二氧化碳中组氨酸催化合成环状碳酸酯

研究了超临界二氧化碳中α-氨基酸催化二氧化碳与环氧化物环加成反应合成环状碳酸酯,发现组氨酸的催化活性最高.在二氧化碳压力为8MPa、反应温度130℃、反应时间48h、组氨酸加入量为0.8mol%的条件下,二氧化物可以顺利的与各种环氧化物反应,以高的选择性和产率生成相应的环状碳酸酯.     

氨基酸盐酸盐催化二氧化碳与环氧化物的环化反应

利用氨基酸盐酸盐作为催化剂,二氧化碳可以和环氧化物发生偶联反应,高产率和高选择性地生成环状碳酸酯,详细研究了反应条件如二氧化碳压力,反应温度,时间及催化剂用量对反应的影响。     

Histidine-catalyzed synthesis of cyclic carbonates in supercritical carbon dioxide

The coupling reaction of carbon dioxide with epoxides was investigated using naturally occurring α-amino acids as the catalyst in supercritical carbon dioxide and it was found that L-histidine is the most active catalyst. In the presence of 0.8 mol% of L-histidine at 130 °C under 8 MPa of CO₂, the reaction of carbon dioxide with epoxides proceeded smoothly, affording corresponding cyclic carbonates in good to excellent yields.     

溴化锌-季(鎓)三溴盐催化二氧化碳和环氧化合物偶联反应

研究了溴化锌-季鎓三溴盐催化二氧化碳和环氧化合物偶联反应,考察了反应温度、压力和不同金属盐对反应的影响以及催化剂的循环使用性能.结果表明,在413 K和1.0 MPa条件下,以溴化锌为催化剂,苯基三甲基三溴化铵为共催化剂,无需加入任何溶剂就可以使二氧化碳和环氧化合物发生偶联反应,并以很高的收率得到环碳酸酯.     

A poly(ethylene glycol)-supported quaternary ammonium salt for highly efficient and environmentally friendly chemical fixation of CO2 with epoxides under supercritical conditions

A PEG-supported quaternary ammonium salt is proved to be an efficient and recyclable homogeneous catalyst for solvent-free synthesis of cyclic carbonates from carbon dioxide and epoxides under supercritical conditions. Supporting Bu₄NBr on soluble polymer PEG6000 enhances the catalytic activity. The workup procedure is straightforward, and the catalyst can be reused over five times with no appreciable loss of catalytic activity and selectivity.     

Comparative kinetic studies of the copolymerization of cyclohexene oxide and propylene oxide with carbon dioxide in the presence of chromium salen derivatives. In situ FTIR measurements of copolymer vs cyclic carbonate production

The catalysis of the reaction of carbon dioxide with epoxides (cyclohexene oxide or propylene oxide) using the (salen)Cr(III)Cl complex as catalyst, where H(2)salen = N,N'-bis(3,5-di-tert-butylsalicylidene)-1,2-cyclohexenediimine (1), to provide copolymer and cyclic carbonate has been investigated by in situ infrared spectroscopy. As previously demonstrated for the cyclohexene oxide/CO(2) reaction in the presence of complex 1, coupling of propylene oxide and carbon dioxide was found to occur by way of a pathway first-order in catalyst concentration. Unlike the cyclohexene oxide/carbon dioxide reaction catalyzed by complex 1, which affords completely alternating copolymer and only small quantities of trans-cyclic cyclohexyl carbonate, under similar conditions propylene oxide/carbon dioxide produces mostly cyclic propylene carbonate. Comparative kinetic measurements were performed as a function of reaction temperature to assess the activation barrier for production of cyclic carbonates and polycarbonates for the two different classes of epoxides, i.e., alicyclic (cyclohexene oxide) and aliphatic (propylene oxide). As anticipated in both instances the unimolecular pathway for cyclic carbonate formation has a larger energy of activation than the bimolecular enchainment pathway. That is, the energies of activation determined for cyclic propylene carbonate and poly(propylene carbonate) formation were 100.5 and 67.6 kJ.mol(-1), respectively, compared to the corresponding values for cyclic cyclohexyl carbonate and poly(cyclohexylene carbonate) production of 133 and 46.9 kJ.mol(-1). The small energy difference in the two concurrent reactions for the propylene oxide/CO(2) process (33 kJ.mol(-1)) accounts for the large quantity of cyclic carbonate produced at elevated temperatures in this instance.     

Mechanistic Investigation of the Reaction of Epoxides with Heterocumulenes Catalysed by a Bimetallic Aluminium Salen Complex

The bimetallic aluminium(salen) complex [(Al(salen))₂O] is known to catalyse the reaction between epoxides and heterocumulenes (carbon dioxide, carbon disulfide and isocyanates) leading to five‐membered ring heterocycles. Despite their apparent similarities, these three reactions have very different mechanistic features, and a kinetic study of oxazolidinone synthesis combined with previous kinetic work on cyclic carbonate and cyclic dithiocarbonate synthesis showed that all three reactions follow different rate equations. An NMR study of [Al(salen)]₂O and phenylisocyanate provided evidence for an interaction between them, consistent with the rate equation data. A variable‐temperature kinetics study on all three reactions showed that cyclic carbonate synthesis had a lower enthalpy of activation and a more negative entropy of activation than the other two heterocycle syntheses. The kinetic study was extended to oxazolidinone synthesis catalysed by the monometallic complex Al(salen)Cl, and this reaction was found to have a much less negative entropy of activation than any reaction catalysed by [Al(salen)]₂O, a result that can be explained by the partial dissociation of an oligomeric Al(salen)Cl complex. A mechanistic rationale for all of the results is presented in terms of [Al(salen)]₂O being able to function as a Lewis acid and/or a Lewis base, depending upon the susceptibility of the heterocumulene to reaction with nucleophiles.     

Polymer-bound aluminium salen complex as reusable catalysts for CO2 insertion into epoxides

Two polymeric aluminium salen complexes in where the backbones are either a partially crosslinked polystyrene [(Al(salen)/PS)] or poly(ethylene glycol bismethacrylate) [(Al(salen)/PEA)] have been synthesised and used for the carbon dioxide insertion into epoxides to form cyclic carbonates. The catalytic activity of these polymers is similar to that of the unsupported aluminium salen complexes, and the polymeric catalysts can be easily separated from the reaction mixture and reusable in consecutives runs. The activity and reusability of the polymeric salen complex depends on the nature of the polymer: PEA being a polymer with a high oxygen content in the backbone enhances the initial activity as compared to PS, but Al(salen)/PEA exhibits lower stability as compared to Al(salen)/PS and a Al depletion occurs upon use. The presence of nucleophiles such as N-methylimidazole or N,N-dimethylaminopyridine in excess increases the catalytic activity of the polymeric Al(salen) catalyst. Also polymeric nucleophiles have been found to be suitable reusable co-catalysts for this reaction.     

乙腈体系中咪唑溴盐和电制镁盐协同促进环氧化物与 CO2羧化反应合成环状碳酸酯

CO2是一种储量丰富且廉价易得的可再生 C1资源.以 CO2为原料的羧化反应可将 CO2高效转化成羧酸及其衍生物等高附加值化学品.例如, CO2和环氧化物反应生成环状碳酸酯属于“原子经济”反应,是有效利用 CO2的方法之一,其产物环状碳酸酯广泛用于极性有机溶剂、电池电解液和化妆品等.由于 CO2化学性质非常稳定,不易活化,制备环状碳酸酯的传统方法是以金属卤化物或金属配合物为催化剂在高温高压下进行反应.因此,开发出操作简便且能耗低的绿色技术用于合成环状碳酸酯面临巨大挑战.
　　最近研究表明,电催化技术可使环氧化物和 CO2在温和条件下转化为环状碳酸酯.已报道的电催化反应研究重点都是如何通过多相或均相电催化还原 CO2的方式使环氧化物能够在温和条件下进行羧化反应.然而, CO2电还原生成的 CO2?-自由基非常活泼,在其扩散到溶液中与环氧化物反应之前易在电极上直接转化为 CO和碳酸盐等副产物,从而导致羧化反应较低的电流效率.
　　 Ema课题组报道环氧化物与 CO2羧化反应经历三个步骤,即开环反应、CO2插入反应和闭环反应,其中开环反应活化能最大,是羧化反应决速步骤.与已报道的电催化途径不同,本文通过建立一个由电化学反应和羧化反应组成的催化反应体系,旨在通过降低开环反应活化能来促进环氧化物羧化反应.在电化学反应过程中,由牺牲阳极提供羧化反应必需的路易斯酸,即电制镁盐;在羧化反应过程中,通过电制镁盐和咪唑溴盐的协同作用实现环氧化物和 CO2在温和条件下高效率地转化为环状碳酸酯.
　　实验首先选取环氧苯乙烷为反应原料,考察了电制镁盐、共催化剂的阳离子以及羧化反应温度对目标产物产率的影响.如果羧化反应过程中没有镁盐或直接用等量溴化镁代替电制镁盐,羧化产率仅为5.4%和35.5%,而电制镁盐条件下羧化反应产率高达90.7%,表明电制镁盐作为路易斯酸催化剂对提高羧化反应产率是必不可少的.比较了在 N2和 CO2气氛中分别电解制备得到的镁盐的催化性能. N2气氛中电制镁盐更高的催化性能可能与溶剂乙腈或支持电解质的阳离子在阴极发生电还原生成的物质有关.该电还原产物可部分代替溴离子与电制镁盐配对,由于其体积更大,一定程度上提高了电制镁盐的亲电性,有利于羧化反应进行.如果用四丁基溴化铵代替咪唑溴盐作为共催化剂,羧化反应产率从90.7%降为65.5%.羧化反应过程中溴离子对电制镁盐的配对能力受共催化剂阳离子静电引力的牵制而减弱,共催化剂的阳离子对溴离子的静电引力越强,溴离子对电制镁盐亲电性的影响就越弱.前期研究成果表明,在乙腈溶液中咪唑阳离子对阴离子的静电引力明显强于季铵阳离子,由此可认为当咪唑溴盐作为共催化剂时提高了电制镁盐的亲电性,促进了环氧化物的开环反应.提高羧化反应温度虽然可以降低环氧化物开环反应的活化能,但也会降低 CO2在乙腈溶液中的溶解度,50°C反应较为合适.在最优反应条件下考察了该催化体系对其他环氧化物羧化反应的普适性,所得环状碳酸酯产率为48.3%–90.7%.     

A novel and effective Ni complex catalyst system for the coupling reactions of carbon dioxide and epoxides

The coupling of carbon dioxide and mono-substituted terminal epoxides or cyclohexene oxide to form cyclic carbonates under a Ni complex catalyst system without using additional organic solvents was achieved in excellent selectivity and TOF.     

Cyclic carbonate synthesis from epoxides and CO2 over cyanocobalamin/n‐Bu4NI

The synthesis of cyclic carbonates from epoxides and carbon dioxide catalyzed by cyanocobalamin and n‐Bu₄NI system was achieved under 0.8 MPa CO₂ pressure at 140°C without organic solvents. Propylene carbonate was obtained in 99% yield within 6 h under the optimized reaction conditions. The cyanocobalamin catalyst could be recycled with water and retained moderate catalytic activity. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

非金属催化剂在催化环氧化物和CO2合成环状碳酸酯中的研究进展

随着科学技术的进步和工业化的发展,大量化石燃料被消耗,大气中二氧化碳浓度急剧增加,导致温室效应加剧,严重威胁到人类的生存和发展。基于可持续发展的思想,利用储量丰富且廉价的二氧化碳作为 C1资源替代有毒的气体(如一氧化碳和光气等)制备具有广泛应用的环状碳酸酯,不仅满足“绿色化学”的要求,而且符合“原子经济性”的原则。迄今为止,大量用于催化二氧化碳和环氧化物环加成反应合成环状碳酸酯的催化剂,包括均相催化剂(如金属卤化物、有机碱、离子液体和金属配合物),多相催化剂(如金属氧化物、负载型催化剂、有机聚合物、金属有机框架材料和碳材料等)被报道。其中金属催化剂占主导地位,大多表现出优异的催化活性。然而,目前可供开采的金属矿越来越少,大多数金属的回收再利用率较低,重金属污染日趋严重。因此,开发新型、廉价、绿色、高效、循环性和稳定性好的非金属催化剂具有重要意义。
　　本文主要介绍了近3年以来用于催化二氧化碳和环氧化物环加成反应合成环状碳酸酯的非金属催化剂,主要包括有机碱、离子液体、固载型催化剂、有机聚合物和碳材料等。概括了不同种类催化剂的设计思想及其催化反应机理,重点阐述了分子内以及分子间各种功能基团的协同作用对环加成反应的影响。通过比较发现,具有“C–N=C”结构的有机碱活性相对较高,氢键给体和亲核物质都能与有机碱协同作用提高其催化活性;传统离子液体的活性一般不理想,氢键给体如羟基和羧基的引入有利于促进环加成反应,且多阳离子和多氢键给体功能化的离子液体表现出更高的催化活性;负载型催化剂中,载体和活性组分之间的协同作用有利于加速环加成反应的进行,多种功能基团负载和以共价键方式多层固载能更好地提高催化剂稳定性和催化活性;利用非烯烃化合物制得的活性组分位于主链的多孔有机聚合物,催化活性和稳定性大多高于活性组分位于侧链的烯烃聚合物;碳材料催化剂中,引入不饱和的 N物种(如伯胺和吡啶氮),有利于 CO2的吸附和活化,能促进环加成反应。此外,利用密度泛函的方法,计算模拟催化反应过程,能更好地揭示反应机理,并为设计和制备高效的催化剂提供理论指导。
　　该领域目前面临的重要挑战是研发可以同时实现二氧化碳捕获和转化的新型、环保和高效非金属催化剂,终极目标是利用多孔催化材料在常温和常压下直接捕获工业废气中的二氧化碳,并利用捕获的二氧化碳实现环状碳酸酯的连续生产。基于协同催化的设计思想,利用多种基团功能化的策略合成高效吸附和活化二氧化碳以及开环活化环氧化物的非金属催化剂,有望实现上述目标。