电喷雾质谱的非共价键蛋白质复合物研究

电喷雾质谱(ESI-MS)已经成为检测和研究生物分子弱相互作用,即非共价键作用的一个重要分析手段.ESI-MS除了具有快速、灵敏、专属的特点以外,还有能够直接得出复合物的分子量和化学计量比的优点.本文通过蛋白质与蛋白质、配体、金属离子的非共价复合物的例子阐述了ESI-MS技术的主要特性,综述了ESI-MS在非共价键蛋白质复合物方面的早期和近期应用研究成果.引用文献34篇.     

Study of non-covalent complexation between catechin derivatives and peptides by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry

The recent development of electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) has allowed its use to study molecular interactions driven by non-covalent forces. ESI-MS has been used to detect non-covalent complexes between proteins and metals, ligands and peptides and interactions involving DNA, RNA, oligonucleotides and drugs. Surprisingly, the study of the interaction between polyphenolic molecules and peptides/proteins is still an area where ESI-MS has not benefited. With regard to the important influence of these interactions in the biological and food domains, ESI-MS was applied to the detection and the characterization of soluble polyphenol-peptide complexes formed in model solution. The ability to observe and monitor the weak interactions involved in such macromolecular complexation phenomena was demonstrated for monomeric and dimeric flavonoid molecules (catechin-derived compounds) largely encountered in plants and plant derived products. Intact non-covalent polyphenol-peptide complexes were observed by ESI-MS using different experimental conditions. Utilizing mild ESI interface conditions allowed the detection of 1 : 1 polyphenol-peptide complexes in all tested solutions and 2 : 1 complexes for the dimers and galloylated polyphenols (flavanols). These results show that there is a preferential interaction between polymerized and/or galloylated polyphenols and peptide compared with that between monomeric polyphenols and peptides. Thus, ESI-MS shows potential for the study of small polyphenolic molecule-peptide interactions and determination of stoichiometry.     

缓激肽多肽片段间非共价作用的质谱研究

以缓激肽(R¹P²P³G⁴F⁵S⁶P⁷F⁸R⁹)分子作为研究模型, 用电喷雾质谱研究缓激肽分子碎片片段之间的非共价相互作用, 探讨了影响气相多肽分子构象稳定的氢键作用. 合成了与缓激肽分子在位置1断裂形成的碎片一致的RPPGFS和PFR多肽序列, 与在位置2断裂形成碎片一致的RPPGF和SPFR多肽, 以及N端或者C端去掉精氨酸的相应碎片多肽. 实验结果表明, 上述两个断裂位置产生的碎片多肽分别进行反应后, 都能发生非共价作用. 在断裂方式1下, PFR多肽在去掉C端的精氨酸R后, 与其他大多数多肽不发生非共价结合, 表明PFR中的R在缓激肽气相分子的构象中发挥重要的作用. 而在断裂方式2下, 去掉N端或者C端精氨酸的多肽之间都存在非共价结合, 即C端带有丝氨酸的SPF或SPFR多肽碎片仍然可以与N端碎片发生氢键结合, 表明丝氨酸很可能处于转角的位置. 通过对碰撞诱导解离(CID)的碰撞能量分析, 发现多肽RPPGFS和PFR, 以及多肽RPPGF和SPFR之间氢键结合较强, 而同时去掉N端和C端精氨酸得到的多肽之间的氢键结合较弱. 质谱滴定法定量测得的RPPGFS和PFR的结合常数为3.53×10³, 与RPPGF和SPFR的结合常数(3.16×10³)相接近,它们均大于去除精氨酸的PPGF和SPF的结合常数(1.25×10³). 质谱滴定实验结果进一步确认了碰撞诱导解离的分析结果, 表明缓激肽分子两端的精氨酸之间的氢键作用是气相缓激肽分子构象稳定的重要因素之一.     

电喷雾质谱法研究谷胱甘肽与L型芳香性氨基酸非共价复合物

为探索谷胱甘肽和L型芳香性氨基酸的非共价相互作用, 将一定化学剂量比的还原型γ-谷胱甘肽分别与L型芳香性氨基酸(包括苯丙氨酸、酪氨酸和色氨酸)在室温和生理pH条件下混合后, 温育1 h, 生成非共价复合物, 并使反应完全. 电喷雾质谱测量结果揭示谷胱甘肽和L型芳香性氨基酸反应可以生成非共价复合物. 在二级串级质谱MS2测得的复合物碎片离子峰中, 除芳香性氨基酸离子峰外, 还包括谷胱甘肽及其它再次碎裂产生的b2和y2碎片离子, 进一步确认了非共价复合物的形成. 紫外光谱也证实了电喷雾质谱的实验结果. 为避免严重的离子化效率差异和质谱信号的相互抑制作用, 定量评估了谷胱甘肽和酪氨酸的相互作用, 结果显示反应物的初始浓度应该选择在5×10-5~3.00×10-4 mol/L范围内. 用质谱滴定法测定了谷胱甘肽与3个芳香性氨基酸非共价复合物的解离常数, 结果表明, 谷胱甘肽复合物的稳定性按Tyr, Trp和Phe次序依次增大.     

Comparison of mass spectrometry and other techniques for probing interactions between metal complexes and DNA

Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) was used to study the binding interactions of two series of ruthenium complexes, [Ru(phen) 2L] (2+) and [RuL' 2(dpqC)] (2+), to a double stranded DNA hexadecamer, and derive orders of relative binding affinity. These were shown to be in good agreement with orders of relative binding affinity derived from absorption and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopic examination of the same systems and from DNA melting curves. However, the extent of luminescence enhancement caused by the addition of DNA to solutions of the ruthenium complexes showed little correlation with orders of binding affinity derived from ESI-MS or any of the other techniques. Overall the results provide support for the validity of using ESI-MS to investigate non-covalent interactions between metal complexes and DNA.     

Mass spectrometry of protein-ligand complexes: Enhanced gas-phase stability of ribonuclease-nucleotide complexes

Noncovalent protein-ligand complexes are readily detected by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). Ligand binding stoichiometry can be determined easily by the ESI-MS method. The ability to detect noncovalent protein-ligand complexes depends, however, on the stability of the complexes in the gas-phase environment. Solution binding affinities may or may not be accurate predictors of their stability in vacuo. Complexes composed of cytidine nucleotides bound to ribonuclease A (RNase A) and ribonuclease S (RNase S) were detected by ESI-MS and were further analyzed by MS/MS. RNase A and RNase S share similar structures and biological activity. Subtilisin-cleavage of RNase A yields an S-peptide and an S-protein; the S-peptide and S-protein interact through hydrophobic interactions with a solution binding constant in the nanomolar range to generate an active RNase S. Cytidine nucleotides bind to the ribonucleases through electrostatic interactions with a solution binding constant in the micromolar range. Collisionally activated dissociation (CAD) of the 1:1 RNase A-CDP and CTP complexes yields cleavage of the covalent phosphate bonds of the nucleotide ligands, releasing CMP from the complex. CAD of the RNase S-CDP and CTP complexes dissociates the S-peptide from the remaining S-protein/nucleotide complex; further dissociation of the S-protein/nucleotide complex fragments a covalent phosphate bond of the nucleotide with subsequent release of CMP. Despite a solution binding constant favoring the S-protein/S-peptide complex, CDP/CTP remains electrostatically bound to the S-protein in the gas-phase dissociation experiment. This study highlights the intrinsic stability of electrostatic interactions in the gas phase and the significant differences in solution and gas-phase stabilities of noncovalent complexes that can result.     

Hydrogen Bonding versus Halogen Bonding: Spectroscopic Investigation of Gas-Phase Complexes Involving Bromide and Chloromethanes

Hydrogen bonding and halogen bonding are important non-covalent interactions that are known to occur in large molecular systems, such as in proteins and crystal structures. Although these interactions are important on a large scale, studying hydrogen and halogen bonding in small, gas-phase chemical species allows for the binding strengths to be determined and compared at a fundamental level. In this study, anion photoelectron spectra are presented for the gas-phase complexes involving bromide and the four chloromethanes, CH₃Cl, CH₂Cl₂, CHCl₃, and CCl₄. The stabilisation energy and electron binding energy associated with each complex are determined experimentally, and the spectra are rationalised by high-level CCSD(T) calculations to determine the non-covalent interactions binding the complexes. These calculations involve nucleophilic bromide and electrophilic bromine interactions with chloromethanes, where the binding motifs, dissociation energies and vertical detachment energies are compared in terms of hydrogen bonding and halogen bonding.     

Gas-phase binding of non-covalent protein complexes between bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor and its target enzymes studied by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry

The potential of electrospray ionization (ESI) mass spectrometry (MS) to detect non-covalent protein complexes has been demonstrated repeatedly. However, questions about correlation of the solution and gas-phase structures of these complexes still produce vigorous scientific discussion. Here, we demonstrate the evaluation of the gas-phase binding of non-covalent protein complexes formed between bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI) and its target enzymes over a wide range of dissociation constants. Non-covalent protein complexes were detected by ESI-MS. The abundance of the complex ions in the mass spectra is less than expected from the values of the dissociation constants of the complexes in solution. Collisionally activated dissociation (CAD) tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) and a collision model for ion activation were used to evaluate the binding of non-covalent complexes in the gas phase. The internal energy required to induce dissociation was calculated for three collision gases (Ne, Ar, Kr) over a wide range of collision gas pressures and energies using an electrospray ionization source. The order of binding energies of the gas-phase ions for non-covalent protein complexes formed by the ESI source and assessed using CAD-MS/MS appears to differ from that of the solution complexes. The implication is that solution structure of these complexes was not preserved in the gas phase.     

Investigation of monovalent and bivalent enantioselective molecular recognition by electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry and tandem mass spectrometry

In this work is described the investigation of bivalent versus monovalent enantioselective molecular recognition in the context of enantioselective separations. Electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) are used for evaluating enantioselective systems through the measurement of (1) relative solution-phase binding constants via titration and (2) relative gas-phase binding via collision threshold dissociation. In HPLC, a cinchonane-type chiral stationary phase (CSP) based on tert.-butylcarbamoylquinine provides vastly increased retention and enantioselectivity for separation of bivalent versus monovalent alkoxy-benzoyl-N-blocked leucine enantiomers. The bivalent enantiomers are able to span and simultaneously interact with multiple interaction sites on the CSP surface, leading to enhanced separation. ESI-MS titration measurements also show an increased avidity for binding between bivalent selector and bivalent selectand, compared with the monovalent system. However, enhanced enantioselectivities measured in HPLC for the bivalent system cannot be reproduced by MS due to inherent mechanistic differences. Assumed discrepancies in relative response factors also give rise to systematic errors which are discussed. The results of MS/MS gas-phase experiments show that enantioselectivity is essentially lost in the absence of solvation, but that dissociation thresholds can provide a measure of relative dissociation energy in the bivalent interaction system compared to the monovalent counterpart. Such measurements may prove useful and efficient in better understanding multivalent interactions, in line with current theoretical considerations of effective concentrations and ion trap effects. This is the first application of mass spectrometric methods for assessing increased avidity of binding in multivalent enantioselective molecular recognition.     

Interactions of cationic porphyrins with double-stranded oligodeoxynucleotides: a study by electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry

Electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) and Ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy were used to investigate the non-covalent interactions between small oligonucleotide duplexes with the GC motif and a group of cationic meso(N-methylpyridynium-4-yl)porphyrins (four free bases with one to four positive charges, and the zinc complex of the tetracationic free base).The results obtained point to outside binding of the porphyrins, with the binding strength increasing with the number of positive charges. Fragmentations involving losses from both chains were observed for the porphyrins with N-methylpyridinium-4-yl groups in opposite meso positions.     

Application of a simple calorimetric data analysis on the binding study of calcium ions by human growth hormone

A simple graphical linear method was introduced for isothermal titration calorimetric data analysis in the protein-ligand interaction. The number of binding sites, the dissociation binding constant and the molar enthalpy of binding site can be obtained by using this new isothermal titration calorimetric data analysis method. The method was applied to the study of the interaction of human growth hormone (hGH) with divalent calcium ion at 27°C in NaCl solution, 50 mM. hGH has a set of three identical and independent binding sites for Ca ²⁺ . The intrinsic dissociation equilibrium constant and the molar enthalpy of binding are 52 μMand -17.4, respectively. Results obtained by this new calorimetric data analysis are in good agreement with results obtained using our previous method.     

Effect of dispersion corrections on covalent and non-covalent interactions in DFTB calculations

Dispersion corrections in quantum mechanical methods with the focus on non-covalent interactions have been extensively investigated in the past decade. In this paper, we elucidate the role of dispersion corrections in both non-covalent and covalent interactions within the density functional tight binding (DFTB) method. Our results suggest that two dispersion correction models, D3(BJ) and D3(CSO), generally improve different properties including barrier heights, isomerization energies, bond dissociation energies, and non-covalent binding energies. The D3(CSO) model, with fewer dispersion coefficients and DFTB-dependent parameters, was shown to perform as well as the D3(BJ) model.     

Characterization of non-covalent complexes of rutin with cyclodextrins by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry

Electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS(n)) and the phase solubility method were used to characterize the gas-phase and solution-phase non-covalent complexes between rutin (R) and alpha-, beta- and gamma-cyclodextrins (CDs). The direct correlation between mass spectrometric results and solution-phase behavior is thus revealed. The order of the 1 : 1 association constants (K(c)) of the complexes between R and the three CDs in solution calculated from solubility diagrams is in good agreement with the order of their relative peak intensities and relative collision-induced dissociation (CID) energies of the complexes under the same ESI-MS(n) condition in both the positive and negative ion modes. Not only the binding stoichiometry but also the relative stabilities and even binding sites of the CD-R complexes can be elucidated by ESI-MS(n). The diagnostic fragmentation of CD-R complexes, with a significant contribution of covalent fragmentation of rutin leaving the quercetin (Q) moiety attached to the CDs, provides convincing evidence for the formation of inclusion complexes between R and CDs. The diagnostic fragment ions can be partly confirmed by the complexes between Q and CDs. The gas-phase stability order of the deprotonated CD-R complexes is beta-CD-R > alpha-CD-R > gamma-CD/R; beta-CD seems to bind R more strongly than the other CDs.     

电喷雾质谱法研究天然产物小分子识别人类端粒G-四链体及复合物的热稳定性

利用电喷雾质谱(ESI-MS)研究了12种天然产物小分子与人类端粒G-四链体结构的非共价相互作用和识别功能, 比较了不同小分子与人类端粒G-四链体的结合强弱, 发现了一种新的识别小分子——防己诺林碱对人类端粒G-四链体有很好的结合. 通过质谱升温实验比较了小分子结合对G-四链体热稳定性的影响, 防己诺林碱的结合使G-四链体的离子的解离温度(T1/2)上升到200 ℃. 利用分子模拟对G-四链体DNA与小分子结合的模式以及稳定性进行了探讨, 给出了防己诺林碱可能的结合位点和结合模式, Autodock计算出来的结合能约为-31.5 kJ·mol-1. 同原来的平面型分子不同, 防己诺林碱是一类新型结构的分子, 为设计合成新型G-四链体识别分子提供了新的结构模型.     

Investigation of Non-covalent Interactions of 18-Crown-6 with Amino Acids in Gas Phase by Mass Spectrometry

The non-covalent interactions between 18-Crown-6 (18c6) and 20 common types of protonated amino acids were explored by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. The mass spectra showed that 18c6 could react with amino acids to form a non-covalent complexe in a stoichiometric ratio of 1:1. The calibration curves and linear equations for the complexes of L-Phe, L-Tyr, L-Lys and L-Asp with 18c6 were established by mass spectrometric titration and used as reference values for competitive ESI-MS. Through competitive equilibria, the binding constants for the complexes of 18c6 with other L-amino acids and their D-isomers were derived. It was found that, as a general trend, lgK_a for the complexes of 18c6 with the basic amino acid and the amino acid with alkyl side chain were larger than other complexes, and among the amino acid with alkyl side chain, Gly and Ala exhibited greater 18c6 binding affinities. As for Ser and Thr, the intramolecular hydrogen bond between the nitrogen atom from terminal –NH₂ and the oxygen atom from carboxyl might impede their protonated amino-group to attack the 18c6. Furthermore, Gln and Asn exhibited lower binding affinities to 18c6, probably due to effects of electron-withdrawing group of acylamide. Finally, the chiral selectivity of 18c6 for L-amino or D-amino acids were measured by ESI-MS, and the result showed that 18c6 could only recognize some neutral amino acid isomers.     

谷胱甘肽与D型氨基酸非共价复合物的质谱

为了研究谷胱甘肽和D型氨基酸的非共价相互作用, 将一定化学剂量比的还原型谷胱甘肽与D-苯丙氨酸、D-组氨酸或D-谷氨酰胺在室温下混合后, 温育1 h, 使反应达到平衡. 电喷雾质谱测量结果表明, 在生理pH条件下, 谷胱甘肽可以和D 型氨基酸经反应生成非共价复合物. 串级质谱中的碰撞诱导解离(CID)以及紫外光谱进一步确认了非共价复合物的生成. 为了避免严重的离子化效率和质谱信号相互抑制作用, 对谷胱甘肽和D-谷氨酰胺的相互作用作了定量的评估. 配制一系列不同初始浓度的谷胱甘肽和D型氨基酸的混合溶液, 并用电喷雾质谱测定混合溶液中不同质点的质谱峰强度, 计算了谷胱甘肽与三个D型氨基酸结合形成的复合物的解离常数. 计算结果表明, 谷胱甘肽可以和D型氨基酸结合形成不同键合强度的非共价复合物, 其稳定性按照D-谷氨酰胺、D-苯丙氨酸、D-组氨酸的次序逐渐增大.     

Modeling data from titration,amide H/D exchange,and mass spectrometry to obtain protein-ligand binding constants

We recently reported a new method for quantification of protein-ligand interaction by mass spectrometry, titration and H/D exchange (PLIMSTEX) for determining the binding stoichiometry and affinity of a wide range of protein-ligand interactions. Here we describe the method for analyzing the PLIMSTEX titration curves and evaluate the effect of various models on the precision and accuracy for determining binding constants using H/D exchange and a titration. The titration data were fitted using a 1:n protein:ligand sequential binding model, where n is the number of binding sites for the same ligand. An ordinary differential equation was used for the first time in calculating the free ligand concentration from the total ligand concentration. A nonlinear least squares regression method was applied to minimize the error between the calculated and the experimentally measured deuterium shift by varying the unknown parameters. A resampling method and second-order statistics were used to evaluate the uncertainties of the fitting parameters. The interaction of intestinal fatty-acid-binding protein (IFABP) with a fatty-acid carboxylate and that of calmodulin with Ca(2+) are used as two tests. The modeling process described here not only is a new tool for analyzing H/D exchange data acquired by ESI-MS, but also possesses novel aspects in modeling experimental titration data to determine the affinity of ligand binding.     

Hydrolysis of substrate analogues catalysed by beta-D-glucosidase from Aspergillus niger. Part II: Deoxy and deoxyhalo derivatives of cellobiose.

The hydrolysis of sixteen mainly deoxy and deoxyhalo derivatives of celloboise catalysed by beta-D-glucosidase from Aspergillus niger has been studied by means of 1H NMR spectroscopy and progress-curve enzyme kinetics in both single-substrate and competition experiments. In the non-reducing ring of cellobiose it was found that the hydroxy groups at positions 2', 3', and 4' are essential for the enzymatic hydrolysis. The primary hydroxy group on 6' in this ring is, although important for the hydrolysis, not essential. The analogues modified at positions 3' and 4' and the 6'-bromo-6'-deoxy derivative were not inhibitors, whereas the 2'-deoxy derivative inhibited the enzymatic hydrolysis of methyl beta-cellobioside to some extent. Of the analogues modified in the reducing ring, some were hydrolysed faster (e.g. the deoxy compounds) and some slower than methyl beta-cellobioside in single-substrate experiments, but all derivatives were hydrolysed at a lower rate than this reference substrate in direct competition and displayed relatively weak inhibitory effects. The results are interpreted qualitatively with respect to changes in the free binding energies of the substrates and catalytic transition states based on the Michaelis-Menten mechanism, and some mechanistic implications of these findings are discussed.     

Non-denaturing electrospray ionisation-mass spectrometry reveals ligand selectivity in histamine-binding protein RaHBP2

ESI-MS has been used to probe the non-covalent interactions between a histamine-binding protein, from Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, and a range of bioactive amine ligands.