Free boundary viscous flows at micro and mesolevel during liquid composites moulding process

Numerical simulation aspects, related to low Reynolds number free boundary viscous flows at micro and mesolevel during the resin impregnation stage of the liquid composite moulding process (LCM), are presented in this article. A free boundary program (FBP), developed by the authors, is used to track the movement of the resin front accurately by accounting for the surface tension effects at the boundary. Issues related to the global and local mass conservation (GMC and LMC) are identified and discussed. Unsuitable conditions for LMC and consequently GMC are uncovered at low capillary numbers, and hence a strategy for the numerical simulation of such flows is suggested. FBP encompasses a set of subroutines that are linked to modules in ANSYS. FBP can capture the void formation dynamics based on the analysis developed. We present resin impregnation dynamics in two dimensions. Extension to three dimensions is a subject for further research. Several examples are shown and efficiency of different stabilization techniques are compared. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Molecular dynamics and information on possible sites of interaction of intramyocellular metabolites in vivo from resolved dipolar couplings in localized H NMR spectra

Proton NMR resonances of the endogenous metabolites creatine and phosphocreatine ((P)Cr), taurine (Tau), and carnosine (Cs, β-alanyl-l-histidine) were studied with regard to residual dipolar couplings and molecular mobility. We present an analysis of the direct ¹H–¹H interaction that provides information on motional reorientation of subgroups in these molecules in vivo. For this purpose, localized ¹H NMR experiments were performed on m. gastrocnemius of healthy volunteers using a 1.5-T clinical whole-body MR scanner. We evaluated the observable dipolar coupling strength SD₀ (S = order parameter) of the (P)Cr-methyl triplet and the Tau-methylene doublet by means of the apparent line splitting. These were compared to the dipolar coupling strength of the (P)Cr-methylene doublet. In contrast to the aliphatic protons of (P)Cr and Tau, the aromatic H2 (δ = 8 ppm) and H4 (δ = 7 ppm) protons of the imidazole ring of Cs exhibit second-order spectra at 1.5 T. This effect is the consequence of incomplete transition from Zeeman to Paschen-Back regime and allows a determination of SD₀ from H2 and H4 of Cs as an alternative to evaluating the multiplet splitting which can be measured directly in high-resolution ¹H NMR spectra. Experimental data showed striking differences in the mobility of the metabolites when the dipolar coupling constant D₀ (calculated with the internuclear distance known from molecular geometry in the case of complete absence of molecular dynamics and motion) is used for comparison. The aliphatic signals involve very small order parameters S ≈ (1.4 − 3) × 10⁻⁴ indicating rapid reorientation of the corresponding subgroups in these metabolites. In contrast, analysis of the Cs resonances yielded S ≈ (113 − 137) × 10⁻⁴. Thus, the immobilization of the Cs imidazole ring owing to an anisotropic cellular substructure in human m. gastrocnemius is much more effective than for (P)Cr and Tau subgroups. Furthermore, ¹H NMR experiments on aqueous model solutions of histidine and N-acetyl-l-aspartate (NAA) enabled the assignment of an additional signal component at δ = 8 ppm of Cs in vivo to the amide group at the peptide bond. The visibility of this proton could result from hydrogen bonding which would agree with the anticipated stronger motional restriction of Cs. Referring to the observation that all dipolar-coupled multiplets resolved in localized in vivo ¹H NMR spectra of human m. gastrocnemius collapse simultaneously when the fibre structure is tilted towards the magic angle (θ ≈ 55°), a common model for molecular confinement in muscle tissue is proposed on the basis of an interaction of the studied metabolites with myocellular membrane phospholipids.     

Biopolymers for biocatalysis: Structure and catalytic mechanism of hydroxynitrile lyases

Hydroxynitrile lyases catalyze the reversible cleavage of α-cyanohydrins to yield hydrocyanic acid and the corresponding aldehyde or ketone. Besides its biological interest, this class of enzymes is also of relevance in industrial biocatalysis for the enantioselective condensation of HCN with a variety of aldehydes and ketones. Several distinctly different types of hydroxynitrile lyases (HNLs) are known, which must have originated through convergent evolution from different ancestral proteins. Three-dimensional structural data are known for three classes of hydroxynitrile lyases. Insights into the reaction mechanisms emerged from a combination of structural, enzyme kinetic, spectroscopic, and molecular modeling data. For all three types of HNLs, mechanisms involving acid–base catalysis were proposed. In members belonging to the α,β-hydrolase type, the amino acid residues of the catalytic triad presumably act as general acid/base, whereas for flavine adenine dinucleotide (FAD)-dependent HNLs a single histidine residue fulfills this function. In the third type of HNL—which is related to carboxypeptidase—acid–base catalysis involves the carboxylate of the C-terminal residue. The catalytic relevance of a positive electrostatic potential in the active site was suggested in some of the mechanistic proposals. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42: 479–486, 2004     

Composite Silica Particles Using a Mixture of Organosilane Monomers

Composite silica particles were synthesized by a two-step (acid-base) process in an aqueous solution with a mixture of organoalkoxysilane monomers. The two-step process separates the hydrolysis and condensation procedures to easily control condensation rate. In this study, the silane monomers used were phenyltrimethoxysilane (PTMS), vinyltrimethoxysilane (VTMS), methyltrimethoxysilane (MTMS), and tetraethyl-orthosilicate (TEOS). The physical properties of the resultant composite particles were investigated with the change in the molar ratio of monomers. The size of the particles increased with increasing the molar ratio of R_aSi(OR)₃/R_bSi(OR)₃ or R_aSi(OR)₃/TEOS (R_a: phenyl; R_b: vinyl, methyl).     

Extension of the chain‐end,free‐volume theory for predicting glass temperature as a function of conversion in hyperbranched polymers obtained through one‐pot approaches

Compared with linear polymers, more factors may affect the glass‐transition temperature (T_g) of a hyperbranched structure, for instance, the contents of end groups, the chemical properties of end groups, branching junctions, and the compactness of a hyperbranched structure. T_g's decrease with increasing content of end‐group free volumes, whereas they increase with increasing polarity of end groups, junction density, or compactness of a hyperbranched structure. However, end‐group free volumes are often a prevailing factor according to the literature. In this work, chain‐end, free‐volume theory was extended for predicting the relations of T_g to conversion (X) and molecular weight (M) in hyperbranched polymers obtained through one‐pot approaches of either polycondensation or self‐condensing vinyl polymerization. The theoretical relations of polymerization degrees to monomer conversions in developing processes of hyperbranched structures reported in the literature were applied in the extended model, and some interesting results were obtained. T_g's of hyperbranched polymers showed a nonlinear relation to reciprocal molecular weight, which differed from the linear relation observed in linear polymers. T_g values decreased with increasing molecular weight in the low‐molecular‐weight range; however, they increased with increasing molecular weight in the high‐molecular‐weight range. T_g values decreased with increasing log M and then turned to a constant value in the high‐molecular‐weight range. The plot of T_g versus 1/M or log M for hyperbranched polymers may exhibit intersecting straight‐line behaviors. The intersection or transition does not result from entanglements that account for such intersections in linear polymers but from a nonlinear feature in hyperbranched polymers according to chain‐end, free‐volume theory. However, the conclusions obtained in this work cannot be extended to dendrimers because after the third generation, the end‐group extents of a dendrimer decrease with molecular weight. Thus, it is very possible for a dendrimer that T_g increases with 1/M before the third generation; however, it decreases with 1/M after the third generation. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 42: 1235–1242, 2004     

Heterochain model for simultaneous long‐chain branching and crosslinking. III. Multicomponent polymerization

The matrix formula developed in the context of heterochain theory, M?_w = M?_wp + WF ( I ? M )^?1 S , was applied to describe the molecular weight development during free‐radical multicomponent polymerization. All of the required probabilistic parameters are expressed in terms of the kinetic‐rate constants and the various concentrations associated with them. In free‐radical polymerization, the number of heterochain types, N, needs to be extrapolated to infinity, and such extrapolation is conducted with only three different N values. This matrix formula can be used as a benchmark test if other approximate approaches can give reasonable estimates of the weight‐average molecular weights. The moment equations with the average pseudo‐kinetic‐rate constants for branching and crosslinking reactions may provide poor estimates when the copolymer composition drift during polymerization is very significant. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 42: 2801–2812, 2004     

Changes in the near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectra of long-chain diacetylene derivatives through photopolymerization in Langmuir–Blodgett films

Photopolymerization of cadmium 10,12-pentacosadiynoate (CdDA) in Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) films, with the molecular packing well arranged by moderate preannealing, was investigated with near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy. Greenish films of polydiacetylene with an absorption wavelength of 705 nm were obtained through the photopolymerization of preannealed monomer LB films, and this resulted in an extended π-conjugate system based on the well-ordered monomer in a two-dimensional arrangement. The electronic structures of the polydiacetylenes were found to be correlated to the variation of the molecular arrangements in the films from the changes in the NEXAFS spectra through photopolymerization in the LB films. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 42: 2329–2336, 2004     

Fracture toughening of epoxy matrices with blends of resins of different molecular weights and other modifiers

The microstructure and fracture behavior of epoxy mixtures containing two monomers of different molecular weights were studied. The variation of the fracture toughness by the addition of other modifiers was also investigated. Several amounts of high‐molecular‐weight diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA) oligomer were added to a nearly pure DGEBA monomer. The mixtures were cured with an aromatic amine, showing phase separation after curing. The curing behavior of the epoxy mixtures was investigated with thermal measurements. A significant enhancement of the fracture toughness was accompanied by slight increases in both the rigidity and strength of the mixtures that corresponded to the content of the high‐molecular‐weight epoxy resin. Dynamic mechanical and atomic force microscopy measurements indicated that the generated two‐phase morphology was a function of the content of the epoxy resin added. The influence of the addition of an oligomer or a thermoplastic on the morphologies and mechanical properties of both epoxy‐containing mixtures was also investigated. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 42: 3920–3933, 2004     

Structure and properties of the mesophase of syndiotactic polystyrene. VIII. Solvent sorption behavior of syndiotactic polystyrene/p‐chlorotoluene mesophase membranes

A crystalline δ form of a syndiotactic polystyrene (sPS) membrane was prepared from a solution of sPS (1 wt %) and p‐chlorotoluene (p‐CT) by a solution‐casting method. The mesophase (δ empty form) of sPS was obtained by the extraction of the guest solvent from the δ form of sPS by a stepwise solvent‐extraction method. The sPS/p‐CT mesophase membrane [p‐CT (A‐M)] was used for the sorption of 1 mol % p‐CT for different times and for the sorption of different concentrations of p‐CT, chlorobenzene (CB), p‐xylene (p‐X), toluene, and chloroform for 48 h. The presence of solvents in the sPS membrane was confirmed by IR analysis. A thermal study revealed that the sorption amount of 1 mol % p‐CT increased with increasing immersion time, and the sorption amounts of different solvents increased with increasing solvent concentration. Differential scanning calorimetry results showed that the desorption peak temperature increased as the amount of the solvent increased in the clathrated sPS membrane. Wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction results showed that 2θ at 8.25° was slightly shifted toward 8°, and there was no change in the peak position at 10° for p‐CT (A‐M), which was immersed in different solvents (1 mol %); however, the intensity of 2θ at 10° was not similar for all the samples. Among the solvents used for the sorption studies at 1 mol %, p‐CT (A‐M) could sorb more p‐CT and CB than p‐X, toluene, and chloroform. The solvent sorption isotherm was the Langmuir sorption mechanism. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 42: 3439–3446, 2004