Effects of photodegradation on the physical and antioxidant properties of melanosomes isolated from retinal pigment epithelium

Melanosomes of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) are relatively long-lived organelles that are theoretically susceptible to changes induced by exposure to visible light. Here melanosomes were isolated from porcine RPE cells and subjected to high intensity visible light to determine the effects of illumination on melanosome structure and on the content and antioxidant properties of melanin. As compared to untreated melanosomes, illuminated granules showed morphologic changes consistent with photodegradation, which included variable reductions in electron density demonstrated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and particle fragmentation and surface disruption revealed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy. Illuminated melanosomes had lower melanin content, indicated by measures of absorbance and electron spin resonance (ESR) signal intensity, and reduced ability to bind iron, shown by chemical and ESR analyses. Compared to untreated melanosomes, ESR-spin trapping analyses further indicated that illuminated melanosomes show increased photogeneration of superoxide anion and reduced ability to inhibit the iron ion-catalyzed free radical decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. It appears therefore that visible light irradiation can disrupt the structure of RPE melanosomes and reduce the amount and antioxidant properties of melanin. Some of these changes occur in human RPE melanosomes with aging and the results obtained here suggest that visible light irradiation is at least partly responsible. The consequence of light-induced changes in RPE melanosomes may be a diminished capacity of melanin to help protect aged cells from oxidative damage, perhaps increasing the risk of diseases with an oxidative stress component such as age-related macular degeneration.     

A new model for Overhauser enhanced nuclear magnetic resonance using nitroxide radicals

Nitroxide free radicals are the most commonly used source for dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) enhanced nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experiments and are also exclusively employed as spin labels for electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy of diamagnetic molecules and materials. Nitroxide free radicals have been shown to have strong dipolar coupling to (1)H in water, and thus result in large DNP enhancement of (1)H NMR signal via the well known Overhauser effect. The fundamental parameter in a DNP experiment is the coupling factor, since it ultimately determines the maximum NMR signal enhancements which can be achieved. Despite their widespread use, measurements of the coupling factor of nitroxide free radicals have been inconsistent, and current models have failed to successfully explain our experimental data. We found that the inconsistency in determining the coupling factor arises from not taking into account the characteristics of the ESR transitions, which are split into three (or two) lines due to the hyperfine coupling of the electron to the (14)N nuclei (or (15)N) of the nitric oxide radical. Both intermolecular Heisenberg spin exchange interactions as well as intramolecular nitrogen nuclear spin relaxation mix the three (or two) ESR transitions. However, neither effect has been taken into account in any experimental studies on utilizing or quantifying the Overhauser driven DNP effects. The expected effect of Heisenberg spin exchange on Overhauser enhancements has already been theoretically predicted and observed by Bates and Drozdoski [J. Chem. Phys. 67, 4038 (1977)]. Here, we present a new model for quantifying Overhauser enhancements through nitroxide free radicals that includes both effects on mixing the ESR hyperfine states. This model predicts the maximum saturation factor to be considerably higher by the effect of nitrogen nuclear spin relaxation. Because intramolecular nitrogen spin relaxation is independent of the nitroxide concentration, this effect is still significant at low radical concentrations where electron spin exchange is negligible. This implies that the only correct way to determine the coupling factor of nitroxide free radicals is to measure the maximum enhancement at different concentrations and extrapolate the results to infinite concentration. We verify our model with a series of DNP experimental studies on (1)H NMR signal enhancement of water by means of (14)N as well as (15)N isotope enriched nitroxide radicals.     

含氟烷基氧杂磺酸钾盐快速电子辐照自由基衰变

本文报导了用电子自旋共振谱研究一些含氟烷基氧杂磺酸钾盐经快速电子辐照后自由基衰变的情况。真空辐照和空气中辐照的剂量均为7.2×10~6rad。辐照后的全氟和多氟化合物于室温下放置2～12天后,其自由基浓度为10~(18)spin No./g,放置88天后,自由基浓度与前相同,基本无变化。而十二烷基磺酸钠辐照后生成的自由基,在室温下却很快衰变。辐照后生成的自由基具有反应活性,可以引发苯乙烯的聚合反应。     

Comparable Photoreactivity of Hair Melanosomes,Eu‐ and Pheomelanins at Low Concentrations: Low Melanin a Risk Factor for UVA Damage and Melanoma?†

Melanin is known to be photoreactive and photoprotective, but its function in skin in vivo is still debated. Data is lacking of the effects of UVA irradiation on human skin melanosomes of different pigmentation, which have not been extensively degraded by isolation procedures. We have shown previously that melanosomes isolated from human oriental and black cat hair, and synthetic eumelanins, are photoreactive producing superoxide at low concentrations when exposed to UVA irradiation comparable to UK levels of sunlight. Here we investigated the UVA-irradiation of melanosomes, isolated from different colored human hair samples, using electron spin resonance spectroscopy and spin trapping. Comparable irradiation of synthetic pheomelanins synthesized from L-dopa and L-cysteine was also studied. An alkali method (5 min NaOH at 90 degrees C) could be used to isolate oriental hair melanosomes but was not suitable for auburn and blonde hair. Dithiothreitol and proteinase K resulted in melanin release from possible over-digestion of melanosomes; however, dithiothreitol and papain resulted in no melanin release and good melanosome yields with separation from residual keratin for brown, auburn and blonde hair. Melanosomes isolated by the latter method and synthetic pheomelanins were similar in UVA-photoreactivity at low concentrations, independent of hair color, and broadly comparable to synthetic melanins. Melanosome concentration at constant fluence may be more significant with respect to photodamage and UVA photocarcinogenesis (melanoma) via superoxide radical production than pigment type.     

Electron spin resonance detection of radiosterilization of pharmaceuticals: application to four nitrofurans

The detection and dosimetry of radiosterilization of pharmaceuticals is a growing concern to numerous government regulatory agencies worldwide. In the absence of suitable detection methods, attention was focused on electron spin resonance (ESR) spectrometry. This paper reports experimental data on ESR dosimetry of irradiated nitrofurans (nitrofurantoin, nifuroxazide, nifurzide and nifurtoinol). Whereas the ESR spectrum of a non-irradiated sample shows no signal, a signal, that is dependent on the irradiation dose is observed with irradiated samples. The number of free radicals was calculated by comparing the second integral from radiosterilized samples and a Bruker strong pitch reference; the values were in the range 1.1 x 10(18)-1.5 x 10(19) radicals mol-1 (G = 0.003-0.03). In addition to qualitative detection, ESR spectrometry can be used for dose determination. When a bi-exponential function is applied to the variation of the peak-to-peak amplitude versus dose, the function correlates well with the data. However, an exponential function, easier to use than a bi-exponential function, will probably be sufficient for dose determination by retrospective dosimetry. Decay of radicals upon storage was modelled using a bi-exponential function. From this, the time limit from the irradiation (25 kGy) for identification of irradiated nitrofurans by ESR can be evaluated. With regard to the commercial aspects of drugs, radicals should be detected up to 2 years after irradiation. The kinetic decrease makes discrimination between irradiated and non-irradiated nitrofurans possible even after storage for up to 2 years, except for nifurtoinol.     

Application of spin trapping to redox-initiated vinyl polymerization with thiourea as the reductant

An electron spin resonance (ESR) study confirms a free radical mechanism for aqueous vinyl polymerization initiated by three redox systems involving thiourea. The primary radical, NH₂? C (?NH)S^., could not be detected by ESR spectroscopy, perhaps because of its large g anisotropy and/or very short relaxation time. Propagating radicals are trapped from methyl-methacrylate by 2-methyl-2-nitroso propane (MNP) and their structures are found to be the same as those produced by either azo-bis-isobutyrnitrile or di-t-butyl peroxylate. The latter monomer, however, reacts with MNP in the absence of any initiator, giving different ESR lines.     

γ-radiolysis of acetylated cotton cellulose: An ESR study

The nature and behavior of free radicals induced in acetylated cotton celluloses irradiated with γ-rays have been studied by electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy. Dehydrogenation and deacetylation appear to be responsible for the free radicals observed from samples irradiated at 77°K. The degree of substitution enhanced the yield of acetyl radicals when the samples were irradiated at 77°K and adversely affected the overall radical concentration when irradiation was done at 300°K. In addition, the ESR spectra of samples irradiated under vacuum at 300°K were more intense than those obtained from samples irradiated in air. The nature, yield, and post-irradiation behavior of the primary radicals are discussed in the light of the ultimate chemical effects observed.     

对二嗪N,N’-二氧化物光还原的电子自旋共振研究

报道了利用原位电子自旋共振(ESR)技术研究对二嗪N,N′-二氧化物光解的结果。研究结果表明,化合物5,6,7和8通过光还原过程从溶剂分子夺取氢原子分别生成稳定的自由基,记录出它们分辨良好的ESR谱。文中还讨论了对二嗪N,N′-二氧化物的光化学反应的自由基机理。     

Comparisons of the structural and chemical properties of melanosomes isolated from retinal pigment epithelium, iris and choroid of newborn and mature bovine eyes

Melanosomes were isolated from the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), iris and choroid of mature (age >2 years) and newborn (age <1 week) bovine eyes. Scanning electron microscopy was utilized to analyze the morphology of the melanosomes, which were found to vary among different tissues and different ages. While the total content of amino acids differs slightly (ranging from 9% to 15% by mass), the distributions of the amino acids are similar. The pheomelanin content is low in the choroid and the RPE (0.1-0.5%), and moderate in the iris (<2%); therefore, the major melanin component of bovine eye melanosomes is eumelanin, independent of the shape of the melanosomes. The yields of pyrrole-2,3,5-tricarboxylic acid from melanosomes decrease in the following order: choroid > iris > RPE, and exhibit decreasing yields with age. 13C solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic analysis of iris and choroid melanosomes indicates the same trends. These observations suggest that the 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid contents decrease in the following order: choroid > iris > RPE, and decrease with age. Moreover, the 13C solid-state NMR spectra show (1) for the same age samples, the CH:Cq ratio for choroid is larger than that for iris melanosomes; and (2) an increase in the concentration of carbonyl groups with age within each type of melanosome.     

An ESR protocol based on relaxation phenomena of irradiated Japanese pepper

We found various free radicals in a commercially available pepper in Japan before and after irradiation using electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy. The typical ESR spectrum of the pepper consists of a sextet centered at g = 2.0, a singlet at the same g-value and a singlet at g = 4.0. Upon gamma ray irradiation, a new pair of signals appeared in the pepper. The progressive saturation behavior (PSB) at various microwave power levels indicated quite different relaxation behaviors of those radicals. Namely, the peak intensity of the organic free radical component decreases in a monotonic fashion, whereas the Mn2+ and Fe3+ ESR signals substantially keep constant. This reflects the evidence of three independent radicals in the pepper before irradiation. The PSB of the pair peaks as induced by irradiation possessed quite different PSB from that of the free radical located at g = 2.0. We proposed a new protocol for the ESR detection of irradiated foods by the PSB method at different microwave power levels. This would call for a major modification of the CEN protocol in European Union.     

Age-dependent photoionization thresholds of melanosomes and lipofuscin isolated from human retinal pigment epithelium cells

Melanosomes and lipofuscin were isolated from 14-, 59-, and 76-year-old, human retinal pigment epithelium specimens and examined. The morphological features of these samples were studied by scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy, and the photoionization properties were examined by photoelectron emission microscopy. Ovoid- and rod-shaped melanosomes were observed. The size of the granules and the distribution between the two shapes show no significant age-dependent change. However, there is a higher occurrence of irregularly shaped aggregates of small round granules in older samples which suggests degradation or damage to melanosomes occurs with age. The melanosomes from the 14-year-old donor eye are well characterized by a single photoionization threshold, 4.1 eV, while the two older melanosomes exhibit two thresholds around 4.4 and 3.6 eV. Lipofuscin from both young and old cells show two thresholds, 4.4 and 3.4 eV. The similarity of the potentials observed for aged melanosomes and lipofuscin suggest that the lower threshold in the melanosome sample reflects lipofuscin deposited the surface of the melanosome. The amount, however, is not sufficient to alter the density of the melanosome, and therefore these granules do not separate in a sucrose gradient at densities characteristic of the typical melanolipofuscin granule. These data suggest that thin deposits of lipofuscin on the surface of retinal pigment epithelium melanosomes are common in the aged eye and that this renders the melanosomes more pro-oxidant.     

Pulsed ESR dipolar spectroscopy for distance measurements in immobilized spin labeled proteins in liquid solution

Pulsed electron spin resonance (ESR) dipolar spectroscopy (PDS) in combination with site-directed spin labeling is unique in providing nanometer-range distances and distributions in biological systems. To date, most of the pulsed ESR techniques require frozen solutions at cryogenic temperatures to reduce the rapid electron spin relaxation rate and to prevent averaging of electron-electron dipolar interaction due to the rapid molecular tumbling. To enable measurements in liquid solution, we are exploring a triarylmethyl (TAM)-based spin label with a relatively long relaxation time where the protein is immobilized by attachment to a solid support. In this preliminary study, TAM radicals were attached via disulfide linkages to substituted cysteine residues at positions 65 and 80 or 65 and 76 in T4 lysozyme immobilized on Sepharose. Interspin distances determined using double quantum coherence (DQC) in solution are close to those expected from models, and the narrow distance distribution in each case indicates that the TAM-based spin label is relatively localized.     

Photooxidative degradation of cellulose: Reactions of the cellulosic free radicals with oxygen

Photooxidative degradation of cellulose resulted in decreases of degree of polymerization (DP) and α-cellulose content, concurrently producing chromophoric groups; namely, carbonyl, carboxyl, and hydroperoxide groups within the polymer. Electron spin resonance (ESR) studies revealed that cellulosic carbon free radicals readily reacted with oxygen molecules at 143–160 K to produce peroxy radicals, whereas cellulosic oxygen free radicals were inert toward oxygen molecules throughout the photooxygenation reactions. At 77 K it is feasible that only photoexcited oxygen molecules reacted with cellulosic carbon free radicals to produce peroxide radicals. These radicals were themselves stabilized at 273 K by abstraction of hydrogen atoms from cellulose to produce polymer hydroperoxides. Simultaneously, new radical sites, which exhibited three-line ESR spectra, were generated in cellulose.     

Surface elastic properties of human retinal pigment epithelium melanosomes

Atomic force microscope (AFM) imaging and nanoindentation measurements in water were used to probe the mechanical properties of retinal pigment epithelium melanosomes isolated from 14-year-old and 76-year-old donors. Topographic imaging reveals surface roughness similar to previous measurements on dry melanosomes. Force-indentation measurements show different types of responses that were catalogued into four different categories. In these measurements no permanent surface damage of melanosomes was observed as revealed by imaging before and after indentation measurements. The indentation measurements that exhibited nearly elastic responses were used to determine the Young's modulus of melanosomes. The average Young's modulus values are similar for 14-year-old and 76-year-old melanosomes with a somewhat narrower distribution for the 14-year-old sample. These elastic modulus values are considerably higher than the modulus of organelles with cytoplasm (<1 MPa) and approaching values of the modulus of protein crystals (approximately 100 MPa) indicating rather high packing density of biologic material in melanosomes. The width of the Young's modulus distributions is considerable spanning from few megapascals to few tens of megapascals indicating large heterogeneity in the structure. A fraction of the force curves cannot be described by the homogeneous elastic sample model; these force curves are consistent with approximately 10 nm structural heterogeneity in melanosomes. The approach-withdraw hysteresis indicates a significant viscoelasticity, particularly in the samples from the 14-year-old sample. Adhesion of the AFM probe was detected on approximately 3% and approximately 20% of the surface of 14-year-old and 76-year-old samples, respectively. In light of previous studies on these same melanosomes using photoelectron emission microscopy, this adhesion is attributed to the presence of lipofuscin on the surface of the melanosomes. This suggestion indicates that part of the difference in photochemical properties between the old and young melanosomes originates from surface lipofuscin.     

New materials for ESR dosimetry

New materials for electron spin resonance (ESR) dosimetry have been investigated with the aim to find systems more sensitive than L-alanine accepted as a standard for high dose determinations. Among the investigated systems ammonium tartrate, 2-methylalanine, salts of formic acids and dithionates have been found to be more sensitive than alanine by a factor 2-10. The lower limit applies to tissue equivalent materials, while much higher sensitivities were obtained with formates and dithionates containing heavier atoms. The increased sensitivity was mainly attributed to suitable ESR properties of the room temperature stable radicals as regards spectral shape (narrow lines, little or no hyperfine structure) and microwave saturation properties (short relaxation times). The radical structures have when necessary been clarified by ENDOR spectroscopy, while the saturation properties have been screened by pulsed ESR measurements.     

Study of molecular mobility in ultraoriented polypropylene by the spin-probe technique

The rotational mobility of nitroxide radicals in polypropylene samples with draw ratios varying from 1 to 18 has been studied between 30 and 110°C by the ESR technique. The drop in the rotational frequency with increasing orientation correlates very well with the behavior of various other measures of molecular mobility such as organic vapor sorption, proton spin–spin relaxation times from NMR, and dynamic mechanical loss factor. This implies that each of these parameters is a good indicator of the amount of free volume in the amorphous regions. Annealing at high temperature relaxes the amorphous chain segments, thereby increasing the spin-probe rotational frequency in the drawn samples to values even higher than that in the quenched isotropic material.     

ESR and X-ray diffraction studies of diacyl peroxides in urea and aluminosilicate hosts

Electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy was used to study the photodecomposition of long-chain diacyl peroxides trapped in channels within zeolites (silicalite and ferrierite) and urea clathrates. ESR spectra of radical pairs in single crystals of the urea clathrates of diundecanoyl peroxide (UP), lauroyl peroxide (LP) andbis(6-bromohexanoyl) peroxide (6-BrHP) show that the alkyl radicals respond to the CO₂ stress field by recoiling along the channel. In each clathrate, the inter-radical distance for the most relaxed pair is approx. 9.5 Å, suggesting nearly complete relaxation of stress from the CO₂s. The rotational mobility and exceptional kinetic stability of the radicals is attributed to relaxation of stress and the lack of a convenient escape route for the CO₂s. X-ray diffraction indicates one-dimensional ordering of guests in 6-BrHP/urea and 3-dimensional ordering of guests in UP/urea. Solid state NMR experiments on LP/urea suggest high guest mobility under ambient conditions. When UP and 6-BrHP were intercalated into silicalite, photolysis yielded isolated radicals, but no radical pairs, even as low as 20 K.     

脂氧合酶催化双高-γ-亚麻酸脂质过氧化产生的碳自由基的结构确证

采用液相色谱-电子自旋共振波谱(LC/ESR)联用技术、液相色谱-质谱(LC/MS)联用技术结合自旋捕集技术,研究了脂氧合酶(LOX)催化双高-γ-亚麻酸(DGLA)脂质过氧化过程中产生的碳自由基.以α-[4-吡啶基-1-氧]-N-叔丁基氮酮(POBN)为自旋捕集剂,在LOX-DGLA反应混合物中与碳自由基形成自旋加合物后,根据各加合物在LC/UV/ESR和LC/MS中对应的保留时间,确定加合物的分子量,进一步根据加合物质谱裂解方式确定其结构.结果表明,在LOX催化DGLA脂质过氧化过程中产生的碳自由基主要包括~·C_7H_(13)O_2,~·C_(10)H_(17)O_2和~·C_5H_(11),分别来自DGLA脂氧自由基(8-,11-,15-LO~·)的β-裂解.此结果有利于进一步研究DGLA在体内的脂质过氧化过程及该过程中产生的碳自由基的生理作用.     

交联共聚丙烯酰胺-丙烯酸水凝胶溶胀态分子动力学的NMR弛豫研究

用反相悬浮聚合法制备了交联度分别为10％、7．5％、5％、1％、0．5％及0．25％的丙烯酰胺-丙烯酸P（AAM－NaAA）交联共聚水凝胶，用HNMR驰豫方法测定了水及聚合物主链上（－CH2CH－）基团中质子的自旋-自旋驰豫时间（T2），并结合质子线型分析，研究了交联凝胶在溶胀态下的内部分子运动，讨论了不同交联度下谱线线宽及驰豫变化的机制。结果表明，由于交联使凝胶内部各向异性相互作用增强，存在有残余的偶极-偶极相互作用，质子语具有特征的超Lorentz线型；质子线宽比非交联态时加大，水及主链的T2随交联度的加大而减小，反映了内部分子运动由强变弱的过程；水的T2驰豫不是单纯的单指数驰豫行为，表明凝胶内部有较强的键合束缚水存在，与DSC实验的结论一致。     

Fast kinetics of the reactions of hydroxyl radicals with nitrone spin traps

The technique of spin trapping with nitrone spin traps nas gained wide acceptance as a method for estimating·OH yields in ESR studies. In our study, fast optical kinetic techniques applied to a series of these traps (PBN, 2-PyBN, 3-PyBN, 4-PyBN, 3-PyOBN and 4-PyOBN) reveal relaxation spectra that indicate two absorption maxima with different time constants, with all except 4-PyOBN showing second order behavior. These two spectral regions show different kinetics. Thus, two reaction sites are indicated, only one of which is necessarily a measure of initial · OH when ESR methods are used. One other trap (DMPO) after · OH reaction decays in one mode suggesting that its final product might be useful as a measure of initial · OH. Also, our ESR evidence shows that OH detection can be improved significantly by spin trapping -hydroxyalkyl radicals formed by · OH attack on alcohols.