Progress in Renewable Polymers from Natural Terpenes,Terpenoids, and Rosin

The development of sustainable renewable polymers from natural resources has increasingly gained attention from scientists, engineers as well as the general public and government agencies. This review covers recent progress in the field of renewable bio‐based monomers and polymers from natural resources: terpenes, terpenoids, and rosin, which are a class of hydrocarbon‐rich biomass with abundance and low cost, holding much potential for utilization as organic feedstocks for green plastics and composites. This review details polymerization and copolymerization of terpenes such as pinene, limonene, and myrcene and their derivatives, terpenoids including carvone and menthol, and rosin‐derived monomers. The future direction on the utilization of these natural resources is discussed.     

How well can renewable resources mimic commodity monomers and polymers?

This highlight discusses the recent progress aimed at maximizing the potential of biomass for commodity monomers and polymers. These efforts are no longer solely academic issues. In recent years, a variety of alkene, diene, aromatic, and condensation type monomers have utilized renewable resources, such as cellulose, lignin, plant oils, starches, and monoterpenes in commercial polymers. Generally, these multifaceted efforts involve pretreatment of biomass with thermal, chemical, or physical methods followed by a catalyst sequence that entails a combination of acid‐catalysis, bio‐catalysis, or metal‐based catalysis. In this regard, synthesis strategies for ethylene, propylene, α‐olefins, methylmethacrylate, 1,3‐butadiene, 1,3‐cyclohexadiene, isoprene, 1,3‐propanediol, 1,4‐butanediol, and terephthalic acid are discussed as well as opportunities for other renewable‐based monomers. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem, 2012     

利用多功能、多用途的可再生甲酸实现化学品的绿色与可持续合成

近年来,随着化石资源日趋短缺以及由此带来的人类生存环境日益恶化,生物质等可再生资源的高效、可持续利用已成为各国科学家研究与关注的焦点。甲酸,生物精炼中的主要副产物之一,具备廉价易得、无毒、能量密度高以及可再生可降解等特性,将其应用于新能源利用与化学转化,不仅有助于甲酸应用领域的进一步拓展,还有助于解决面向未来的生物精炼技术中的一些共性瓶颈问题。本文简要回顾了甲酸利用的研究历史,总结了甲酸作为高效、多用途试剂与原料在化学品合成及生物质催化转化等方面的最新研究进展,并对利用甲酸活化来实现高效化学转化的基本原理及催化体系进行了对比分析,指出今后研究重点应着眼于努力提高甲酸的利用效率,同时实现高选择性合成两方面,并在此基础上进一步拓展其应用领域。在化学品合成方面,甲酸作为一种环境友好可再生的多功能试剂可应用于多种官能团的选择转化过程。作为一种高含氢量的氢转移试剂或还原剂,甲酸相较传统氢气具有操作简便可控、条件温和、具有良好化学选择性等优点,广泛应用于醛酮、硝基、亚胺、腈、炔烃、烯烃等的选择还原以制取相应的醇、胺、烯烃和烷烃类化合物,以及醇类和环氧化物的氢解和官能团去保护等过程。鉴于甲酸亦可用作C1原料,作为多用途的关键基础试剂甲酸还可应用于包括喹啉衍生物的还原甲酰化、胺类化合物甲酰化和甲基化,烯烃羰化以及炔烃还原水合等多级串联反应,是实现精细复杂有机分子高效简约绿色合成的重要途径。该类过程的挑战在于寻求对甲酸及特定官能团的可控活化兼具高选择性和高活性的多功能催化剂。此外,近期有研究表明以甲酸为C1原料还可通过催化歧化反应直接高选择性合成甲醇等大宗化学品。在生物质催化转化方面,甲酸的多功能特性为实现绿色、安全、高原子经济性生物精炼过程提供了潜在可能。生物质资源是储量最大、最具潜力的可持续替代资源,但将其转化为可利用的资源形式仍然面临挑战。甲酸的酸性质及良好溶剂特性可应用于生物质原料预处理过程,实现木质纤维素组分分离和纤维素提取,相较传统无机酸预处理体系具有沸点低、易分离、不引入无机离子、对下游反应兼容性强等优点;而作为高效氢源,甲酸也被广泛研究应用于生物质平台化合物选择催化转化制高附加值化学品、木质素降解制芳烃化合物和生物油加氢脱氧精制处理等过程,相较依赖H2的传统氢化过程具有转化效率高、反应条件温和,简便安全并可有效减少相关生物精炼过程中化石资源的物耗与能耗等优势。最新研究表明,通过在温和条件下甲酸水溶液中解聚氧化木质素,可得到重量比大于60%的低分子量芳烃溶液,这一创新性发现为从木质素中直接提取高值芳香化学物等化学品带来了新的机遇。综上所述,生物基甲酸在绿色有机合成和生物质转化等方面表现出巨大潜力,而其多功能性和多用途性对于实现原料的高效利用及目标产物的高选择性至关重要。该领域目前已取得了一定成果并得到了快速发展,然而距实际产业应用还有相当距离,需要进一步探索。今后的研究重点应着眼于以下几个方面：(1)如何针对特定反应优选合适的催化活性金属及反应体系;(2)如何在其他原料和试剂存在条件下高效、可控地活化甲酸;(3)如何从分子层面理解复杂反应的反应机制;(4)如何在相关过程中稳定相应催化剂。展望未来,基于现代社会对环境、经济和可持续发展的需求,甲酸化学将得到产业界与学术界越来越多的关注和研究。     

Nachhaltige Bausteine für die Kunststoff‐Herstellung

Plant oils are currently the principle resource for the production of bio‐based, high performance polymers, such as polyamides. This process is facilitated by giant strides in chemical catalysis and biotechnology, which allows conversion of vegetable oils in “drop‐in” chemical building blocks. These bio‐based polymer building blocks have equivalent chemical and physical properties as well as similar cost structures compared to conventional petrochemical synthesis feedstock. This allows integration of bio‐based resources into industrial production processes without significant adaptations in logistics or process configuration. However, only use of synergies between chemical and biotechnological unit operations will in future provide for sustainable and eco‐efficient process designs. To allow sustainable supply of bio‐oils to a growing chemical industry without a significant impact on food production demands development of alternative bio‐oil sourcing strategies. In this respect the development of processes for the production of microbial oils, which have equivalent chemical properties to their plant counterparts is imperative. One leading option is the biotechnological conversion of agricultural and food waste streams into microbial oils by combining enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentative production using oleaginous organisms, such as yeasts.     

Plant oil renewable resources as green alternatives in polymer science

The utilization of plant oil renewable resources as raw materials for monomers and polymers is discussed and reviewed. In an age of increasing oil prices, global warming and other environmental problems (e.g. waste) the change from fossil feedstock to renewable resources can considerably contribute to a sustainable development in the future. Especially plant derived fats and oils bear a large potential for the substitution of currently used petrochemicals, since monomers, fine chemicals and polymers can be derived from these resources in a straightforward fashion. The synthesis of monomers as well as polymers from plant fats and oils has already found some industrial application and recent developments in this field offer promising new opportunities, as is shown within this contribution. (138 references.)     

Nanostructured Metal Catalysts for Selective Hydrogenation and Oxidation of Cellulosic Biomass to Chemicals

Conversion of biomass to chemicals provides essential products to human society from renewable resources. In this context, achieving atom‐economical and energy‐efficient conversion with high selectivity towards target products remains a key challenge. Recent developments in nanostructured catalysts address this challenge reporting remarkable performances in shape and morphology dependent catalysis by metals on nano scale in energy and environmental applications. In this review, most recent advances in synthesis of heterogeneous nanomaterials, surface characterization and catalytic performances for hydrogenation and oxidation for biorenewables with plausible mechanism have been discussed. The perspectives obtained from this review paper will provide insights into rational design of active, selective and stable catalytic materials for sustainable production of value‐added chemicals from biomass resources.     

Plant oils: The perfect renewable resource for polymer science?!

Already for a long time, plant oils and their derivatives have been used by polymer chemists due to their renewable nature, world wide availability, relatively low price, and their rich application possibilities. Although many different synthetic approaches have been used, more recent examples are pointing in the direction of catalytic transformations and other efficient reactions to achieve a more sustainable production of polymers from these renewable resources. In this context, olefin metathesis, thiol–ene additions, and other processes can contribute not only to a more efficient synthesis of plant oil based polymers, but also to broaden the application possibilities of plant oils. This feature article provides an overview of the present situation with special attention to the use of olefin metathesis and thiol–ene chemistry as synthetic methods and as polymerization techniques.     

基于天然萜类的可持续性聚合物

随着可持续发展观念的逐步深入,可持续性聚合物已发展成为当今高分子领域的研究热点之一.萜类化合物作为自然界中一类来源广泛的天然资源,具有多种可修饰位点和丰富的功能性,由它出发制备可持续性聚合物,不仅可以简化聚合物的合成步骤,还可以赋予聚合物独特的立体构型、良好的生物活性和生物相容性等特点,进而拓展其在表面涂层、生物医药、组织工程等领域中的应用.本文综述了近年来国内外基于天然萜类可持续性聚合物的研究进展,从萜类化合物的结构特点出发,系统介绍了基于天然萜类可持续性聚合物的合成策略、特性及应用.     

Plant wastes and sustainable refineries: What can we learn from fungi?

The valorization of plant wastes allows access to renewable carbon feedstocks without increasing the demand for plant biomass production. Plant wastes are the non-edible residues and waste streams from agriculture, agroindustry and forestry. The chemical diversity and recalcitrance to degradation of such wastes challenge our ability to transform and valorize these resources into value-added compounds. Fungi that thrive on plant tissues have gained a huge diversity of enzymatic toolkits for the finely-tuned degradation of glycan and lignin polymers. Our knowledge on the enzymatic systems developed by fungi now guides innovations for plant waste bioprocessing. Here, we provide an overview of the most recent findings in the hydrolytic and oxidative systems used by fungi for the degradation of recalcitrant plant polymers. We present recent promising success in applying fungal enzymes or fungal fermentations on plant wastes, and discuss the forthcoming developments that could reinforce fungal biotechnology entering a variety of industrial applications.     

Mikrobielle Herstellung von 1, 3‐Propandiol. Fermentative Biotechnologie

The microbial production of 1,3‐propanediol is a success story for modern biotechnology. Once a specialty chemical, 1,3‐propanediol has risen to a bulk chemical within a few years. The interest in 1,3‐propanediol as a new commodity chemical is due to its use as a starting material for novel polymers with excellent physical and chemical properties. With the introduction of a new biotechnological production process, 1,3‐propanediol can be made at a competitive price from renewable resources with the aid of genetically modified E. coli bacteria. The development of the recombinant E. coli strain took more than 7 years and 36 genes had to be altered in order to enable the production of 1,3‐propanediol. In addition, the transformation of glycerol to 1,3‐propanediol could be the solution for the gycerol problem of biodiesel production.     

生物可降解聚(5-羟基乙酰丙酸-co-L-乳酸)的合成与表征(英文)

通过5-羟基乙酰丙酸(5-HLA)与L-乳酸(LLA)的熔融缩聚合成了聚(5-羟基乙酰丙酸-co-L-乳酸)(PHLL),并用凝胶渗透色谱法、X射线衍射法、核磁共振、红外光谱和差示量热扫描法对其进行表征.结果表明,由于5-HLA的羰基与LLA的羟基发生醚化反应,使得共聚产物中存在烯醚键支化结构.在较宽的共聚组成范围内共聚物呈无定形态.同时由于共聚物中5-HLA链节中的氢键作用,使得5-HLA含量的增加可将PHLL的玻璃化温度由54.6℃提高到91.4℃.PHLL在去离子水中的降解行为表明,PHLL在水性溶液中容易发生降解,其降解速度与微观结构有关;无定形的LLA链节比5-HLA链节降解速度快.     

选择性氧化HMF

近年来,利用储量丰富且可再生的生物质资源制备高附加值化学品和液体燃料是目前化学研究领域的热点之一,同时契合可持续发展的国家战略。5-羟甲基糠醛(HMF)是关键的生物质平台化合物之一,广泛应用于制备精细平台化合物、药物的中间体、聚合物的合成、液体燃料的前驱体等。因此,HMF的选择性氧化逐渐成为生物质领域的研究热点。本文主要介绍了近五年来关于HMF选择氧化制备DFF、FFCA、FDCA等生物质衍生物的研究,以及以HMF为中间体的生物质转化过程。关于对HMF进行选择性氧化,主要聚焦于以热催化和光催化两种途径。其中,以热催化的途径将HMF选择性氧化为DFF和FDCA研究较多,此途径下的催化体系主要介绍了贵金属和非贵金属两类;而在为数不多的光催化途径下,主要研究的催化体系是g-C₃N₄催化剂。最后,指出了目前HMF氧化反应研究存在的不足,并提出了可能解决的方法。     

生物基环氧树脂及固化剂研究现状

生物基高分子材料以可再生资源为主要原料,它在减少塑料行业对石油资源消耗的同时,也减少了石油化工原料在生产过程中对环境的污染,具有节约石油资源和保护环境的双重功效。桐油和松香是我国两种重要的天然可再生资源,在目前将化工原料逐步转向可再生资源的时代背景下,它们已被广泛应用于高分子材料的合成和改性。生物基热固性树脂是一个意义重大且前景广阔的研究领域,本文就桐油和松香在生物基环氧树脂和固化剂方面的应用进行了系统的综述和展望。     

Advances in polymer precursors and bio‐based polymers synthesized from 5‐hydroxymethylfurfural

In recent years, considerable efforts have been made regarding the synthesis of renewable chemicals from natural resources. 5‐hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is an interesting platform chemical which has been widely exploited due to its rich chemistry and potential availability. The versatility of HMF has been demonstrated in several areas such as fine chemicals, biofuel precursors, and polymers. In particular, the potential to replace petroleum‐based analogues in the preparation of polymers associated with high performance has been observed owing to the structural rigidity of furan rings. This review aims at critically discuss the current research studies related to the derivatives of HMF, alongside with the synthesis and characterization of (co‐) polymers derived from HMF and its derivatives. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Polym. Sci., Part A: Polym. Chem. 2017 , 55, 1478–1492     

Biofuels and biomass-to-liquid fuels in the biorefinery: catalytic conversion of lignocellulosic biomass using porous materials

At a time when the focus is on global warming, CO(2) emission, secure energy supply, and less consumption of fossil-based fuels, the use of renewable energy resources is essential. Various biomass resources are discussed that can deliver fuels, chemicals, and energy products. The focus is on the catalytic conversion of biomass from wood. The challenges involved in the processing of lignocellulose-rich materials will be highlighted, along with the application of porous materials as catalysts for the biomass-to-liquids (BTL) fuels in biorefineries. The mechanistic understanding of the complex reactions that take place, the development of catalysts and processes, and the product spectrum that is envisaged will be discussed, along with a sustainable concept for biorefineries based on lignocellulose. Finally, the current situation with respect to upgrading of the process technology (pilot and commercial units) will be addressed.     

High‐Strength and Tough Crystalline Polysaccharide‐Based Materials†

Due to the increasing public awareness of environmental issues and the shortage of resources, the focus on products made from renewable sources to fulfill the sustainable development of modern society has intensified. Natural crystalline polysaccharides have been studied for a long time and are among the most abundant renewable resources in the world. High‐performance materials have been fabricated using crystalline polysaccharides such as cellulose and chitin. For practical applications, the mechanical performance of polysaccharide‐based materials is critical. In this review, we focus on the methods for constructing high‐strength and high‐toughness crystalline polysaccharide‐based materials. This review elucidates the three approaches of aggregate structure regulation, bioinspiration and mineralization, and the use of crystalline polysaccharides as matrices for reinforcing the mechanical properties of nanocomposites.     

Dynamic materials derived from biobased furans: towards the ‘sleeping giant’ awakening

This focus article presents the author’s view on the problems in the development of biorefining strategies based on the use of 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural (HMF), the key product derived from renewable plant biomass that was recognized as the ‘sleeping giant’ of the sustainable chemistry. The several key problems that hinder the large-scale production of HMF and its applicability in the laboratory organic synthesis and industry are discussed. This minireview is also focused on the development of the dynamic cross-linked polymers with controlled three-dimensional structure based on Diels–Alder reaction of biobased HMF-derived furans with maleimides. Realization of scalable technologies for an efficient production of such ‘smart’ analogues of the traditional petrochemical-based materials could be the basis for the realization of the competitive HMF-promoted biorefining.     

Comprehensive Understanding of the Eco‐Friendly Synthesis of Zeolites: Needs of 21st Century Sustainable Chemical Industries

Zeolites have taken a leading position in petrochemical, fine, and bulk chemical industries due to their porous architecture, pore sizes, tunable acidity, and thermal stability. Various strategies of zeolites preparation, including template‐free, solvent‐free, and toxic mineral‐free strategies are summarized. Moreover, the zeolite synthesis using naturally occurring minerals and sustainable natural templates is also discussed, which involves the synthesis of nanocrystalline zeolites of different framework structures using plant‐based natural templates and biomass‐derived renewable chemicals. Overall this personal account provides the fundamentals of various sustainable synthetic strategies reported in the literature for the synthesis of zeolites with suitable examples that will be useful for the students and will motivate experienced researchers to develop various novel sustainable methods for the synthesis of zeolites and other inorganic materials of industrial relevance.     

Biocatalysis and Biomass Conversion in Alternative Reaction Media

In this Minireview, the state of the art in the use of ionic liquids (ILs) and deep eutectic solvents (DESs) as alternative reaction media for biocatalytic processes and biomass conversion is presented. Initial, proof‐of‐concept studies, more than a decade ago, involved first‐generation ILs based on dialkylimidazolium cations and non‐coordinating anions, such as tetrafluoroborate and hexafluorophosphate. More recently, emphasis has switched to more environmentally acceptable second‐generation ILs comprising cations, which are designed to be compatible with enzymes and, in many cases are derived from readily available, renewable resources, such as cholinium salts. Protic ionic liquids (PILs), prepared simply by mixing inexpensive amines and acids, are particularly attractive from both an environmental and economic viewpoint. DESs, prepared by mixing inexpensive salts with, preferably renewable, hydrogen‐bond donors such as glycerol and amino acids, have also proved suitable reaction media for biocatalytic conversions. A broad range of enzymes can be used in ILs, PILs and DESs, for example lipases in biodiesel production. These neoteric solvents are of particular interest, however, as reaction media for biocatalytic conversions of substrates that have limited solubility in common organic solvents, such as carbohydrates, nucleosides, steroids and polysaccharides. This has culminated in the recent focus of attention on their use as (co)solvents in the pretreatment and saccharification of lignocellulose as the initial steps in the conversion of second‐generation renewable biomass into biofuels and chemicals. They can similarly be used as reaction media in subsequent conversions of hexoses and pentoses into platform chemicals.     

Solar Reforming of Biomass with Homogeneous Carbon Dots

A sunlight‐powered process is reported that employs carbon dots (CDs) as light absorbers for the conversion of lignocellulose into sustainable H₂ fuel and organics. This photocatalytic system operates in pure and untreated sea water at benign pH (2–8) and ambient temperature and pressure. The CDs can be produced in a scalable synthesis directly from biomass itself and their solubility allows for good interactions with the insoluble biomass substrates. They also display excellent photophysical properties with a high fraction of long‐lived charge carriers and the availability of a reductive and an oxidative quenching pathway. The presented CD‐based biomass photoconversion system opens new avenues for sustainable, practical, and renewable fuel production through biomass valorization.