量子点双标记的Fe3O4@Au磁性纳米DNA电致发光型传感器

合成了Fe3O4@Au磁性纳米粒子,并根据单链寡聚核苷酸(ss-DNA)杂交原理,利用量子点电化学发光,构建了DNA电化学传感器.在磁控玻碳电极(MCGCE)表面,将5′-SH-ssDNA捕获探针自组装在Fe3O4@Au磁性纳米粒子上,然后与目标DNA互补的一端杂交形成dsDNA,再与双标记了量子点的5′-NH2-ssDNA-NH2-3′信号探针杂交形成三明治杂交的DNA.应用循环伏安法对DNA的固定与杂交进行了表征.目标DNA浓度在1.0×10-13～1.0×10-11 mol/L范围与其响应的ECL信号呈线性关系,检出限为1.8×10-14mol/L.由于采用量子点双标记法,检测的灵敏度显著提高.     

利用无标记的分子信标及核酸染料Hoechst 33258检测特定序列核酸

利用无标记的分子信标及核酸染料Hoechst 33258建立了一种高灵敏、高选择性的特定序列核酸检测方法,并以野生型乙型肝炎病毒的一段寡核苷酸序列为目标DNA,对这种方法进行了验证。在此体系中,分子信标的茎完全设计成C/G碱基对。在没有目标DNA时,Hoechst 33258与分子信标作用较弱,其荧光信号很弱;当有目标DNA存在时,分子信标与目标DNA杂交形成双链,Hoechst 33258与双链DNA作用后荧光信号显著增强。在优化条件下,目标DNA浓度在2×10-10~2×10-8mol/L范围内时,Hoechst 33258的荧光强度(ΔI)与目标DNA的浓度(C)之间具有良好的线性关系,回归方程为ΔI=3.3439C+18.6949(R2=0.9982),方法检出限(3σ)为9×10-11mol/L。此方法操作简单、检测速度快、灵敏度高、重现性好、检出限低。     

基于纳米ZnO/壳聚糖复合膜DNA电化学传感器用于HIV基因的免标记检测

以室温固相合成法制备纳米ZnO,通过壳聚糖(CHIT)的成膜效应将纳米ZnO固定在玻碳电极(GCE)表面,制得的ZnO/CHIT/GCE电极成为DNA固定和杂交的良好平台。DNA的固定和杂交通过电化学交流阻抗进行表征。以电化学交流阻抗免标记法检测目标DNA,固定于电极表面的DNA探针与目标DNA杂交后使电极表面的电子传递电阻增大,以此作为检测信号可以高灵敏度地测定目标DNA。电化学阻抗谱检测人类免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)基因片段的线性范围为2.0×10-11~2.0×10-6mol/L,检出限为2.0×10-12mol/L。     

应用纳米金/TiO_2中空微球复合膜高灵敏检测转基因植物外源基因特定DNA序列

在碳糊电极表面制备的纳米金/TiO2中空微球复合膜可以极大地提高DNA检测的灵敏度.应用循环伏安法和电化学交流阻抗谱法研究了纳米金和TiO2中空微球在碳糊电极上的固载,并用[Fe(CN)6]3-/4-作为指示剂以电化学交流阻抗谱法表征了DNA的杂交.此DNA电化学生物传感器成功检测了来自于花椰菜花叶病毒的35S启动子基因的DNA特定序列,其动力学检测范围为1.0×10-12~1.0×10-8mol/L,检测限为2.3×10-13mol/L;同时对从一种转基因大豆中提取的外源基因胭脂碱合成酶基因终止子的聚合酶链式反应(PCR)扩增产物进行了检测,得到了满意的结果.     

用于DNA杂交检测的丝网印刷型生物传感器的研究

将单链DNA(ssDNA)固定到丝网印刷碳电极上构成电化学DNA传感器,采用电化学指示剂,建立DNA杂交的检测方法.Co(phen)33+电化学指示剂通过钴盐与配体邻菲罗啉络合制备,采用等离子发射光谱法(ICP-AES)和核磁共振法(NMR)表征功能基团,采用循环伏安法(CV)分析指示剂的电化学特性,并以此为基础研究ssDNA在电极表面的固定及DNA杂交过程.本研究探讨了直接吸附、静电吸附与键合等3种ssD-NA在电极表面的固定方法,结果表明,静电吸附法和键合法具有较高的ssDNA固定量,采用静电吸附法固定探针的电极杂交目标DNA后,Co(phen)33+易于嵌入双链DNA (dsDNA)中,CV峰电流(ip)信号随目标DNA浓度增加.本研究采用静电吸附ssDNA的电极检测DNA杂交,实验表明,当探针固定液中ssDNA浓度为5 mg/L时,目标DNA浓度在6.65×10- 8～4.26× 10-6mol/L范围内,Co(phen)33+在dsDNA修饰电极上ip值与DNA浓度呈良好的线性关系,R2为0.9819.本研究为建立新的微生物分子分型手段提供了初步依据.     

CdTe量子点标记的DNA电化学传感器的研究

利用碳纳米管和CdTe量子点(QDs)组装的电化学传感器,建立了一种识别DNA的新方法.将氨基修饰的单链DNA探针共价键合固定在带有羧基的碳纳米管修饰的金电极上,然后与CdTe QDs标记的目标DNA进行杂交.利用差分脉冲法(DPV)和循环伏安法对目标DNA的固定和杂交进行表征,通过电活性指示剂柔红霉素(DNR)的DPV峰电流变化,对互补DNA、非互补DNA和单碱基错配DNA序列进行识别.与未标记CdTe QDs的目标DNA相比,标记CdTe QDs的目标DNA序列的电流响应灵敏度明显提高.DNA电化学传感器检测的优化条件:DNR的浓度为1.67×10-5 mol/L,DNA杂交时间为80 min,杂交温度为55 ℃.在1.0×10-13 ～1.0×10-8 mol/L范围,目标DNA浓度的对数值与其响应的DPV信号(还原峰电流)呈线性关系,检出限为3.52×10-14 mol/L(S/N=3,n=9),线性方程为ΔI=50.22+3.567 lgcDNA,相关系数为0.996 6.对1.0×10-10 mol/L的目标DNA样品进行重复测定,相对标准偏差为4.8%(n=5),重复性良好.     

以还原氧化石墨烯和纳米二氧化锆为DNA探针固定平台电化学测定转基因玉米中特定基因序列（英文）

草胺膦乙酰转移酶基因(PAT)是一种转基因植物的外源DNA片段。本文以还原氧化石墨烯和纳米二氧化锆(nano ZrO_2)的复合物作为固定DNA探针的平台,建立了一种灵敏地检测PAT基因的方法。首先,氧化石墨烯直接在电极表面进行电化学还原,然后将一层nano ZrO_2涂覆于其表面,利用DNA中的磷酸基团与nano ZrO_2中氧的亲和作用固定DNA探针。通过微分脉冲伏安法检测DNA探针与PAT基因片段的杂交,构建了用于检测PAT基因片段的电化学生物传感器。该传感器具有稳定性好,重复性好的特点,可灵敏地检测转基因玉米中的PAT基因,检测限达2. 0×10~(-15)mol/L。     

纳米金放大计时库仑法的PML/RARα融合基因检测

应用恒电位在金基底表面电化学沉积纳米金,通过Au—S键将巯基修饰DNA探针固定在纳米金表面,与互补靶序列杂交,构建计时库仑电化学DNA传感器,并检测急性早幼粒细胞白血病(APL)PML/RARα融合基因.采用扫描电子显微术(SEM)与电化学交流阻抗技术(EIS)观察纳米金和表征DNA传感器的构筑过程.以氯化六氨合钌([Ru(NH3)6]Cl3,RuHex)作电化学杂交指示剂,由计时库仑法检测人工合成APL的PML/RARα融合基因.结果表明,纳米金能放大RuHex检测信号,杂交前后电量差值(ΔQ)与靶标链DNA浓度的对数(lgC)值在1.0×10-13～1.0×10-9mol.L-1范围内呈线性关系,检出下限3.7×10-14mol.L-1(S/N=3).该法操作简便、特异性好,有望用于实际样品的检测.     

棒状Sb2S3-nafion纳米复合膜修饰玻碳电极的大肠杆菌DNA传感器

将棒状Sb2S3纳米粒子与Nafion聚合物在乙醇溶液中超声混合得到均匀的Sb2S3-Nafion纳米复合材料分散液。将该复合材料滴涂至玻碳电极(GCE)表面,得到稳定的Sb2S3-Nafion修饰电极。循环伏安和阻抗表征实验表明,由于Sb2S3的纳米尺寸效应及半导体效应,电极的电化学性能得到了极大的提高。采用PCl5为活化剂,将Nafion表面的磺酸基团酰氯化,再利用共价键合法将末端修饰氨基的大肠杆菌DNA特征序列固定到修饰电极表面,制备了一种新型的DNA电化学传感器。以亚甲基蓝(MB)为杂交指示剂,将制备的DNA电化学传感器应用于大肠杆菌基因目标序列检测,结果表明,该传感器对目标DNA具有较宽的动力学线性范围(1.0×10-12～1.0×10-7mol/L),检出限达到2.4×10-13mol/L。此外,选择性实验表明该传感器对互补序列、单碱基错配序列、三碱基错配序列和完全错配序列具有良好的识别能力。     

DNA电化学生物传感器在转基因植物特定序列基因检测中的应用

在玻碳电极(GCE)上采用循环伏安法电聚合硫堇(PTh)得到PTh/GCE修饰电极,并利用聚硫堇层共价结合和静电作用吸附金纳米粒子(AuNP′s)制得AuNP′s/PTh/GCE修饰电极。然后通过将ss-DNA/AuNP′s/PTh修饰电极置于cDNA杂交液中,于42℃杂交制得ds-DNA/AuNP′s/PTh修饰玻碳电极,实现了脱氧核糖核酸(DNA)探针在AuNP′s/PTh修饰的玻碳电极上的固定,制得DNA电化学生物传感器。在[Fe(CN)6]3-/4-溶液中采用微分脉冲伏安法(DPV)及交流阻抗谱技术(EIS)对DNA的固定和杂交进行了表征。试验结果表明:在1.0×10-10～1.0×10-6mol.L-1的浓度范围内,该传感器可对转基因植物外源基因草丁膦乙酰转移酶基因(PAT基因)片段进行检测,检出限(3s)为3.2×10-11mol.L-1。     

Synthesis of 2,2'-Bis(3,6,9-triazanonyl)-4,4'-bithiazole and related compounds as new DNA cleavage agents

Two new bithiazole derivatives, 2,2'-bis(3,6,9-triazanonyl)- and 2,2'-bis(3,7,11-triazaundecyl)-4,4'-bithiazoles (3a, b), were readily synthesized in six steps using the corresponding dialkylenetriamine as starting materials. Under physiological conditions, 5.0 microM 3a exhibited significant DNA cleavage activity in the presence of Co(II), whereas even at 50 micriM, 3b exhibited no DNA cleavage activity. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that 3a forms a 1 : 2 complex with Co(II) ions, whereas 3b does not. These conclusions were based on measurements of stoichiometries of the bithiazole-cobalt complexes obtained by the Job continuous variation method. In contrast, 3a, which contains diethylenetriamine moieties, showed decreased affinity for Calf Thymus (CT) DNA compared with that of 3b, which contains dipropylenetriamine moieties. These findings indicate that the structure of the two aminoalkyl side chains attached at the 2- and 2'-positions of the 4,4'-bithiazole ring significantly influence the formation of cobalt complexes, and affects the compound's ability to cleave DNA as well as its affinity for double-stranded DNA.     

Photochemistry of N-isopropoxy-substituted 2(1H)-pyridone and 4-p-tolylthiazole-2(3H)-thione: alkoxyl-radical release (spin-trapping,EPR, and transient spectroscopy) and its significance in the photooxidative induction of DNA strand breaks

UVA-irradiation of the photo-Fenton reagents N-isopropoxypyridone 2b and N-isopropoxythiazole-2(3H)-thione 3b releases radicals which induce strand breaks. Transient spectroscopy establishes N-O bond scission [Phi(N)(-)(O) = (75 +/- 8)% for 2b and (65 +/- 7)% 3b] as the dominating primary photochemical process to afford the DNA-damaging radicals. Product studies and laser-flash experiments reveal that the thiazolethione 3b leads primarily to the disulfide 5, from which through C-S bond breakage, the bithiazyl 6, the thiazole 7, and the isothiocyanate 8 are derived. Upon irradiation of pyridone 2b (300 nm) in aqueous media, a mixture of isopropoxyl and 2-hydroxyprop-2-yl radicals is formed, as confirmed by trapping with 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide (DMPO) and EPR spectroscopy. In contrast, the photolysis of the thiazolethione 3b (350 nm) affords exclusively the DMPO adducts of the isopropoxyl radicals. Control experiments disclose that the thiazolethione-derived photoproduct disulfide 5, or the intermediary thiyl radicals B, scavenge the carbon-centered 2-hydroxyprop-2-yl radicals, which are generated from the isopropoxyl radicals by hydrogen shift. With supercoiled pBR 322 DNA in a 60:40 mixture of H(2)O-MeCN, the pyridone 2b and the thiazolethione 3b display moderate strand-break activity (17% open-circular DNA for 2b and 12% for 3b). In pure water, however, the pyridone 2b photoinduces substantially more DNA cleavage (32% open-circular DNA), which is attributed to the peroxyl radicals generated from the 2-hydroxyprop-2-yl radicals by oxygen trapping. The lower strand-break activity of the thiazolethione 3b derives presumably from isopropoxyl radicals, because only these are detected in the photolysis of this photo-Fenton reagent.     

Exploring the interaction of ruthenium(II) polypyridyl complexes with DNA using single-molecule techniques

Here we explore DNA binding by a family of ruthenium(II) polypyridyl complexes using an atomic force microscope (AFM) and optical tweezers. We demonstrate using AFM that Ru(bpy)2dppz2+ intercalates into DNA (K(b) = 1.5 x 10(5) M(-1)), as does its close relative Ru(bpy)2dppx2+ (K(b) = 1.5 x 10(5) M(-1)). However, intercalation by Ru(phen)3(2+) and other Ru(II) complexes with K(b) values lower than that of Ru(bpy)2dppz2+ is difficult to determine using AFM because of competing aggregation and surface-binding phenomena. At the high Ru(II) concentrations required to evaluate intercalation, most of the DNA strands acquire a twisted, curled conformation that is impossible to measure accurately. The condensation of DNA on mica in the presence of polycations is well known, but it clearly precludes the accurate assessment by AFM of DNA intercalation by most Ru(II) complexes, though not by ethidium bromide and other monovalent intercalators. When stretching individual DNA molecules using optical tweezers, the same limitation on high metal concentration does not exist. Using optical tweezers, we show that Ru(phen)2dppz2+ intercalates avidly (K(b) = 3.2 x 10(6) M(-1)) whereas Ru(bpy)3(2+) does not intercalate, even at micromolar ruthenium concentrations. Ru(phen)3(2+) is shown to intercalate weakly (i.e., at micromolar concentrations (K(b) = 8.8 x 10(3) M(-1))). The distinct differences in DNA stretching behavior between Ru(phen)3(2+) and Ru(bpy)3(2+) clearly illustrate that intercalation can be distinguished from groove binding by pulling the DNA with optical tweezers. Our results demonstrate both the benefits and challenges of two single-molecule methods of exploring DNA binding and help to elucidate the mode of binding of Ru(phen)3(2+).     

Structural Identification of DNA Adducts Derived from 3‐Nitrobenzanthrone,a Potent Carcinogen Present in the Atmosphere

3‐Nitrobenzanthrone is a powerful bacterial mutagen and carcinogen to mammals. To obtain precise information on DNA‐adduct formation by 3‐nitrobenzanthrone, a number of DNA adducts, including N‐(2′‐deoxyguanosin‐8‐yl)‐3‐aminobenzanthrone ( 13 a ), 2‐(2′‐deoxyguanosin‐N²‐yl)‐3‐aminobenzanthrone ( 14 a ), N‐(2′‐deoxyadenosin‐8‐yl)‐3‐aminobenzanthrone ( 15 a ), 2‐(2′‐deoxyadenosin‐N⁶‐yl)‐3‐aminobenzanthrone ( 16 a ), and their N‐acetylated counterparts 13 b , 14 b , 15 b , and 16 b were synthesized by palladium‐catalyzed aryl amination of the corresponding nucleoside and bromobenzanthrone derivatives. Among these DNA adducts, DNA adducts 13 a , 13 b , 14 a , 14 b , and 16 a were identified in the reaction mixture of nucleosides (2′‐deoxyguanosine, 2′‐deoxyadenosine, or DNA) with N‐acetoxy‐3‐aminobenzanthrone or N‐acetyl‐N‐acetoxy‐3‐aminobenzanthrone, both of which are recognized as activated metabolites of 3‐nitrobenzanthrone. The formation of these multiple DNA adducts may help explain the potent mutacarcinogenicity of 3‐nitrobenzanthrone.     

Extremely high and specific activity of DNA enzymes in cells with a Philadelphia chromosome

BACKGROUND: Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) results from chromosome 22 translocations (the Philadelphia chromosome) that creates BCR-ABL fusion genes, which encode two abnormal mRNAs (b3a2 and b2a2). Various attempts to design antisense oligonucleotides that specifically cleave abnormal L6 BCR-ABL fusion mRNA have not been successful. Because b2a2 mRNA cannot be effectively cleaved by hammerhead ribozymes near the BCR-ABL junction, it has proved very difficult to engineer specific cleavage of this chimeric mRNA. Nonspecific effects associated with using antisense molecules make the use of such antisense molecules questionable. RESULTS: The usefulness of DNA enzymes in specifically suppressing expression of L6 BCR-ABL mRNA in mammalian cells is demonstrated. Although the efficacy of DNA enzymes with natural linkages decreased 12 hours after transfection, partially modified DNA enzymes, with either phosphorothioate or 2'-O-methyl groups at both their 5' and 3' ends, remained active for much longer times in mammalian cells. Moreover, the DNA enzyme with only 2'-O-methyl modifications was also highly specific for abnormal mRNA. CONCLUSIONS: DNA enzymes with 2'-O-methyl modifications are potentially useful as gene-inactivating agents in the treatment of diseases such as CML. In contrast to conventional antisense DNAs, some of the DNA enzymes used in this study were highly specific and cleaved only abnormal BCR-ABL mRNA.     

Methylated DNA: The influence of 7-deaza-7-methylguanine on the structure and stability of oligonucleotides

The 7-deaza-2′-deoxy-7-methylguanosine ( 2b ) [9], which is the glycosylic-bond-stable, noncharged analogue of 2′-deoxy-7-methylguanosine ( 1b ), was incorporated in DNA by solid-phase synthesis. As building blocks, the protected phosphonatc 3a and the phosphoramidite 3b were prepared. The 7-methyl group of 2b stabilizes the B-DNA duplex compared to 7-deaza-2′-deoxyguanosine but does not induce a B-Z transition as it is known from compound 1b . The stabilization by the 7-deaza-7-methylguanine moiety is sequence-dependent, and the nearest-neighbor influence is different from that of 7-deazaguanine. Homooligonucleotides of 2b show sigmoidal melting indicating a highly ordered single-stranded structure. In general, Oligonucleotides containing 2b are very stable against hydrolysis with calf-spleen phosphodiesterase (CS-PDE, 5′ → 3′ exonuclease), while phosphodiester hydrolysis with snake-venom phosphodiesterase (SV-PDE, 3′ → 5′ exonuclease) is only slightly reduced.     

Analysis of wine phenolics by high-performance liquid chromatography using a monolithic type column

A polyacrylamide gel crosslinked with allyl-β-cyclodextrin can be used repeatedly for several weeks for the separation of DNA fragments, since bubbles are not generated during a run. Allyl-β-cyclodextrin can easily be synthesized in one step from allylglycidylether and β-cyclodextrin. The plate numbers for DNA fragments, up to about 1500 bp, are high: for the separation of pBR322/HaeIII fragments they were in the range 450 000–1 600 000 m⁻¹. The resolution was almost independent of the concentration of the crosslinker (allyl-β-cyclodextrin) — in sharp contrast to gels crosslinked with N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide.     

Direct DNA photocleavage by a new intercalating dirhodium(II/II) complex: comparison to Rh2(mu-O2CCH3)4

Transition metal complexes possessing the intercalating dppz ligand (dppz = dipyrido[3,2-a:2',3'-c]phenazine) typically bind ds-DNA through intercalation (K(b) approximately 10(5)-10(6) M(-1)), and DNA photocleavage by these complexes with visible light proceeds through the generation of a reactive oxygen species. The DNA binding and photocleavage by [Rh(2)(mu-O(2)CCH(3))(2)(eta(1)-O(2)CCH(3))(CH(3)OH)(dppz)](+) (2) is reported and compared to that of Rh(2)(mu-O(2)CCH(3))(4) (1). Spectral changes and an increase in viscosity provide evidence for the intercalation of 2 to double stranded DNA with K(b) = 1.8 x 10(5) M(-1). DNA photocleavage by 2 is observed upon irradiation with lambda(irr) > 395 nm both in air and deoxygenated solution. DNA photocleavage is not observed for 1 or free dppz ligand under these irradiation conditions. The coupling of a single dppz ligand to a dirhodium(II/II) bimetallic core in 2 provides a means to access oxygen-independent DNA photocleavage with visible light.     

Interaction of rac-[Cu(diimine)3]2+ and rac-[Zn(diimine)3]2+ complexes with CT DNA: effect of fluxional Cu(II) geometry on DNA binding, ligand-promoted exciton coupling and prominent DNA cleavage

The complexes [Cu(phen)(3)](ClO(4))(2) 1, [Cu(5,6-dmp)(3)](ClO(4))(2) 2, [Cu(dpq)(3)](ClO(4))(2) 3, [Zn(phen)(3)](ClO(4))(2) 4, [Zn(5,6-dmp)(3)](ClO(4))(2) 5 and [Zn(dpq)(3)](ClO(4))(2) 6, where phen = 1,10-phenanthroline, 5,6-dmp = 5,6-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline and dpq = dipyrido[3,2-d:2',3'-f]quinoxaline, have been isolated, characterized and their interaction with calf thymus DNA studied by using a host of physical methods. The X-ray crystal structures of rac-[Cu(5,6-dmp)(3)](ClO(4))(2) and rac-[Zn(5,6-dmp)(3)](ClO(4))(2) have been determined. While 2 possesses a regular elongated octahedral coordination geometry (REO), 5 possesses a distorted octahedral geometry. Absorption spectral titrations of the Cu(II) complexes with CT DNA reveal that the red-shift (12 nm) and DNA binding affinity of 3 (K(b), 7.5 x 10(4) M(-1)) are higher than those of 1 (red-shift, 6 nm; K(b), 9.6 x 10(3) M(-1)) indicating that the partial insertion of the extended phen ring of dpq ligand in between the DNA base pairs is deeper than that of phen ring. Also, 2 with a fluxional Cu(II) geometry interacts with DNA (K(b), 3.8 x 10(4) M(-1)) more strongly than 1 suggesting that the hydrophobic forces of interaction of 5,6 methyl groups on the phen ring is more pronounced than the partial intercalation of phen ring in the latter with a static geometry. The DNA binding affinity of 1 is lower than that of its Zn(ii) analogue 4, and, interestingly, the DNA binding affinity 2 of with a fluxional geometry is higher than that of its Zn(II) analogue 5 with a spherical geometry. It is remarkable that upon binding to DNA 3 shows an increase in viscosity higher than that the intercalator EthBr does, which is consistent with the above DNA binding affinities. The CD spectra show only one induced CD band on the characteristic positive band of CT DNA upon interaction with the phen (1,4) and dpq (3,6) complexes. In contrast, the 5,6-dmp complexes 2 and 5 bound to CT DNA show exciton-coupled biphasic CD signals with 2 showing CD signals more intense than 5. The Delta-enantiomer of rac-[Cu(5,6-dmp)(3)](2+) 2 binds specifically to the right-handed B-form of CT DNA at lower ionic strength (0.05 M NaCl) while the Lambda-enantiomer binds specifically to the left-handed Z-form of CT DNA generated by treating the B-form with 5 M NaCl. The complex 2 is stabilized in the higher oxidation state of Cu(II) more than its phen analogue 1 upon binding to DNA suggesting the involvement of electrostatic forces in DNA interaction of the former. In contrast, 3 bound to DNA is stabilized as Cu(I) rather than the Cu(II) oxidation state due to partial intercalative interaction of the dpq ligand. The efficiencies of the complexes to oxidatively cleave pUC19 DNA vary in the order, 3> 1 > 2 with 3 effecting 100% cleavage even at 10 microM complex concentration. However, interestingly, this order is reversed when the DNA cleavage is performed using H(2)O(2) as an activator and the highest cleavage efficiency of 2 is ascribed to its electrostatic interaction with the exterior phosphates of DNA.