New downstream processing strategy for the purification of monoclonal antibodies from transgenic tobacco plants

Affinity chromatography on immobilized Protein A is the current method of choice for the purification of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). Despite its widespread use it presents certain drawbacks, such as ligand instability, leaching, toxicity and high cost. In the present work, we report a new procedure for the purification of two human monoclonal anti-HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) antibodies (mAbs 2G12 and 4E10) from transgenic tobacco plants using stable and low cost chromatographic materials. The first step of the mAb 2G12 purification procedure is comprised of an aqueous two-phase partition system (ATPS) for the removal of polyphenols while providing an essential initial purification boost (2.01-fold purification). In the second step, mAb 2G12 was purified using cation-exchange chromatography (CEX) on S-Sepharose FF, by elution with 20mM sodium phosphate buffer pH 7.5, containing 0.1M NaCl. The eluted mAb was directly loaded onto an immobilized metal affinity chromatography column (IMAC, Zn(2+)-iminodiacetic acid-Sepharose 6B) and eluted by stepwise pH gradient. The proposed method offered 162-fold purification with 97.2% purity and 63% yield. Analysis of the antibody preparation by sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), enzyme immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and western blot showed that the mAb 2G12 was fully active and free of degraded variants, polyphenols and alkaloids. The effectiveness of the present purification protocol was evaluated by using a second transgenic human monoclonal anti-HIV mAb 4E10. The results showed that the same procedure can be successfully used for the purification of mAb 4E10. In the case of mAb 4E10, the proposed method offered 148-fold purification with 96.2% purity and 36% yield. Therefore, the proposed protocol may be of generic use for the purification of mAbs from transgenic tobacco plants.     

Affinity chromatography for the purification of therapeutic proteins from transgenic maize using immobilized histamine

Plant molecular pharming is a technology that uses plants as bioreactors to produce recombinant molecules of medical and veterinary importance. In the present study, we evaluated the ability of histamine (HIM), tryptamine (TRM), phenylamine (PHEM) and tyramine (TYRM) coupled to Sepharose CL-4B via a 1,4-butanediol diglycidyl ether spacer to bind and purify human monoclonal anti-HIV antibody 2F5 (mAb 2F5) from spiked maize seed and tobacco leaf extracts. Detailed studies were carried out to determine the factors that affect the chromatographic behaviour of mAb 2F5 and also maize seed and tobacco leaf proteins. All affinity adsorbents showed a reduced capacity to bind and a reduced ability to purify proteins from tobacco extract compared to maize extract. Under optimal conditions, HIM exhibited high selectivity for mAb 2F5 and allowed a high degree of purification (>95% purity) and recovery (>90%) in a single step with salt elution (0.4 M KCl) from spiked maize seed extract. Analysis of the purified antibody fraction by ELISA and Western blot showed that the antibody was fully active and free of degraded variants or modified forms. The efficacy of the system was assessed further using a second therapeutic antibody (human monoclonal anti-HIV antibody mAb 2G12) and a therapeutic enzyme (alpha-chymotrypsin). HIM may find application in the purification of a wide range of biopharmaceuticals from transgenic plants.     

Purification of a human immunoglobulin G1 monoclonal antibody from transgenic tobacco using membrane chromatographic processes

Efficient purification of protein biopharmaceuticals from transgenic plants is a major challenge, primarily due to low target protein expression levels, and high impurity content in the feed streams. These challenges may be addressed by using membrane chromatography. This paper discusses the use of cation-exchange and Protein A affinity-based membrane chromatographic techniques, singly and in combination for the purification of an anti-Pseudomonas aerugenosa O6ad human IgG1 monoclonal antibody from transgenic tobacco. Protein A membrane chromatography on its own was unable to provide a pure product, mainly due to extensive non-specific binding of impurities. Moreover, the Protein A membrane showed severe fouling tendency and generated high back-pressure. With cation-exchange membrane chromatography, minimal membrane fouling and high permeability were observed but high purity could not be achieved using one-step. Therefore, by using a combination of the cation-exchange and Protein A membrane chromatography, in that order, both high purity and recovery were achieved with high permeability. The antibody purification method was first systematically optimized using a simulated feed solution. Anti-P. aeruginosa human IgG1 type monoclonal antibody was then purified from transgenic tobacco juice using this optimized method.     

Factorial screening of antibody purification processes using three chromatography steps without protein A

Protein A affinity chromatography is often employed as a capture step to meet the purity, yield, and throughput requirements for pharmaceutical antibody purification. However, a trade-off exists between step performance and price. Protein A resin removes 99.9% of feed stream impurities; however, its price is significantly greater than those of non-affinity media. With many therapeutic indications for antibodies requiring high doses and/or chronic administration, the consideration of process economics is critical. We have systematically evaluated the purification performance of cation-exchange, anion-exchange, hydroxyapatite, hydrophobic interaction, hydrophobic charge induction, and small-molecule ligand resins in each step of a three-step chromatographic purification process for a CHO-derived monoclonal antibody. Host cell proteins were removed to less-than-detectable for three processes (cation-exchange-anion-exchange-hydrophobic interaction chromatography, cation-exchange-anion-exchange-mixed cation-exchange chromatography, and cation-exchange-mixed cation-exchange-anion-exchange chromatography). The order of the process steps affected purification performance significantly.     

Model simulation and experimental verification of a cation-exchange IgG capture step in batch and continuous chromatography

The cation-exchange capture step of a monoclonal antibody (mAb) purification process using single column batch and multicolumn continuous chromatography (MCSGP) was modeled with a lumped kinetic model. Model parameters were experimentally determined under analytical and preparative conditions: porosities, retention factors and mass transfer parameters of purified mAb were obtained through a systematic procedure based on retention time measurements. The saturation capacity was determined through peak fitting assuming a Langmuir-type adsorption isotherm. The model was validated using linear batch gradient elutions. In addition, the model was used to simulate the start-up, cyclic steady state and shut down behavior of the continuous capture process (MCSGP) and to predict performance parameters. The obtained results were validated by comparison with suitable experiments using an industrial cell culture supernatant. Although the model was not capable of delivering quantitative information of the product purity, it proved high accuracy in the prediction of product concentrations and yield with an error of less than 6%, making it a very useful tool in process development.     

Protein A chromatography: Challenges and progress in the purification of monoclonal antibodies

Antibodies for therapeutic use are being continuously approved and their demand has been steadily growing. As known, the golden standard for monoclonal antibody (mAb) purification is Protein A affinity chromatography, a technology that has gained high interest because of its great performance and capabilities. The main concerns are the elevated resins costs and their limited lifetime compared to other resins (e.g. ion exchange chromatography). Great efforts have been carried out to improve purification conditions, such as resin characterization and designing alkali/acid stable resins with a longer lifetime. Modification of Protein A ligands and alternative formats such as monoliths membranes and microshperes have been tested to increase the purification performance. New technology has been proposed to improve the large‐scale separation; in addition, alternative ligands have been suggested to capture mAbs instead of Protein A ligand; however, most of the information is locked by pharmaceutical companies. This mini review summarizes and describes the advances, results, and impact on the Protein A chromatography purification processing.     

Hydrophobic charge‐induction resin with 5‐aminobenzimidazol as the functional ligand: preparation,protein adsorption and immunoglobulin G purification

A new hydrophobic charge‐induction chromatography resin was prepared with 5‐aminobenzimidazol as functional ligand and polyacrylic ester beads as matrix. Adsorption isotherms and adsorption in columns were investigated using human immunoglobulin G and bovine serum albumin as model proteins, and the influence of pH and NaCl concentration was discussed. Results showed that the ligand density was 195 μmol/mL gel, and protein selectivity can be improved by controlling pH and salt addition. An optimized purification process (sample loading at pH 8.0 with 0.2 M NaCl and elution at pH 5.0) was performed to purify human immunoglobulin G from bovine serum albumin containing feedstock, which resulted in human immunoglobulin G purity of 99.7% and recovery of 94.6%. A similar process was applied for the purification of monoclonal antibody from cell culture supernatant, which showed antibody purity of 94.9% and recovery of 92.5%. The results indicated that the new resin developed had comparable performance as Protein A chromatography and would be suitable for antibody purification from complex feedstock.     

A rapid and efficient two-step gel electrophoresis method for the purification of major rye grass pollen allergens

Purified proteins are mandatory for molecular, immunological and cellular studies. However, purification of proteins from complex mixtures requires specialised chromatography methods (i.e., gel filtration, ion exchange, etc.) using fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC) or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) systems. Such systems are expensive and certain proteins require two or more different steps for sufficient purity and generally result in low recovery. The aim of this study was to develop a rapid, inexpensive and efficient gel-electrophoresis-based protein purification method using basic and readily available laboratory equipment. We have used crude rye grass pollen extract to purify the major allergens Lol p 1 and Lol p 5 as the model protein candidates. Total proteins were resolved on large primary gel and Coomassie Brilliant Blue (CBB)-stained Lol p 1/5 allergens were excised and purified on a secondary "mini"-gel. Purified proteins were extracted from unstained separating gels and subjected to sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and immunoblot analyses. Silver-stained SDS-PAGE gels resolved pure proteins (i.e., 875 microg of Lol p 1 recovered from a 8 mg crude starting material) while immunoblot analysis confirmed immunological reactivity of the purified proteins. Such a purification method is rapid, inexpensive, and efficient in generating proteins of sufficient purity for use in monoclonal antibody (mAb) production, protein sequencing and general molecular, immunological, and cellular studies.     

Comparison of standard and new generation hydrophobic interaction chromatography resins in the monoclonal antibody purification process

Recent efforts to improve hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC) for use in monoclonal antibody (mAb) purification have focused on two approaches: optimization of resin pore size to facilitate mAb mass transport, and use of novel hydrophobic charge induction (HCIC) mixed mode ligands that allow capture of mAbs under low salt conditions. We evaluated standard HIC and new generation HIC and HIC-related chromatography resins for mAb purification process efficiency and product quality both as isolated chromatography steps and in purification process trains. We find that HIC resins with optimized pore size have significantly improved binding capacity which can increase HIC purification unit operation efficiency. The HCIC Mercapto-Ethyl-Pyridine (MEP) resin, which shows a different salt impact trend and impurity resolution pattern from standard HIC resin, can not only capture mAb from crude CHO fermentation supernatant but also substantially enhance mAb purification process flow efficiency when serving as a polishing role.     

混合抗体的亲和色谱分离策略

乳腺生物反应器可以高效表达重组人单克隆抗体,但是目标产品与乳液原料中的牛抗体性质、结构非常类似,分离难度很大。本文对牛抗体和重组人抗体的种属差异进行了分析,并在此基础上制定了新型分离策略,采取Protein A亲和色谱和免疫亲和色谱来解决混合抗体的分离问题,并讨论了色谱洗脱模式对分离效果的影响。结果表明,Protein A亲和色谱结合梯度洗脱可以有效地纯化得到混合抗体,但是难以彻底分离重组人抗体和牛抗体;相比之下,使用Protein A亲和色谱结合置换色谱模式可以更加高效地分离混合抗体,最终可以得到纯度高达95%以上的重组人抗体,回收率可达95%以上。免疫亲和色谱同样可以有效地分离纯化重组单克隆抗体,且其通用性更强,可以应用于任何动物乳腺表达重组人抗体的分离纯化中。     

Application of a chromatography model with linear gradient elution experimental data to the rapid scale-up in ion-exchange process chromatography of proteins

We applied the model described in our previous paper to the rapid scale-up in the ion exchange chromatography of proteins, in which linear flow velocity, column length and gradient slope were changed. We carried out linear gradient elution experiments, and obtained data for the peak salt concentration and peak width. From these data, the plate height (HETP) was calculated as a function of the mobile phase velocity and iso-resolution curve (the separation time and elution volume relationship for the same resolution) was calculated. The scale-up chromatography conditions were determined by the iso-resolution curve. The scale-up of the linear gradient elution from 5 to 100mL and 2.5L column sizes was performed both by the separation of beta-lactoglobulin A and beta-lactoglobulin B with anion-exchange chromatography and by the purification of a recombinant protein with cation-exchange chromatography. Resolution, recovery and purity were examined in order to verify the proposed method.     

Relationship between human IgG structure and retention time in hydroxyapatite chromatography with sodium chloride gradient elution

Accurate prediction of the elution tendency of monoclonal antibodies in column chromatography would be beneficial for the efficient setup of purification procedures. Hydroxyapatite chromatography experiments using 37 recombinant human monoclonal antibodies were performed by sodium chloride gradient elution with 5 mM sodium phosphate to correlate the retention times with antibody structures (subclass and light‐chain isotypes). The contribution of metal affinity interactions in the interaction of antibodies with hydroxyapatite was investigated by (i) eliminating 5 mM sodium phosphate in buffers, (ii) comparing sodium chloride versus sodium phosphate gradient elutions, and (iii) using IgG₄ antibodies with a leucine→glutamate mutation. By using antibodies of different subclasses but with identical Fab regions, the elution behavior in sodium chloride elution could be classified by subclass and type of light chain. It is considered that the retention of monoclonal antibodies to hydroxyapatite is affected by the cooperation of phosphoryl cation exchange and metal affinity interactions. The contribution of the metal affinity interactions is greater in the sodium chloride gradient elution method than in the sodium phosphate gradient elution method.     

Purification of humanized monoclonal antibody by hydrophobic interaction membrane chromatography

Humanized monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) hold significant promise as biopharmaceuticals. One of the main challenges faced in the purification of mAbs is their separation from bovine serum albumin, which is the main protein present in most mammalian cell culture media. This paper discusses the purification of humanized mAb hIgG1-CD4 from CHO cell culture media by hydrophobic interaction membrane chromatography using a stack of microporous synthetic membranes. The effects of solution conditions on mAb solubility and binding on the membrane were first studied. The separation of a simulated mixture of bovine albumin and the mAb was then carried out to examine the feasibility of mAb purification. Separation experiments carried out under optimized conditions demonstrated that this membrane-based technique could be used for mAb purification from cell culture media. High purity (97%) and recovery (in excess of 97%) were obtained.     

pH-based cation exchange chromatography in the capture and elution of monoclonal antibodies

Cation exchange chromatography separates adsorbed proteins by controlling the salt concentration or the mobile phase pH. This study examines the pH‐based method for binding and elution of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). Five different clones with isoelectric points from 6 to 9 were evaluated. We performed our studies using a new chromatography resin (Nuvia? S), which has high binding capacity. A three‐column process incorporating Nuvia S as a capture step was also demonstrated for the purification of MAb from tissue culture fluid. Chromatography performance of Nuvia S was demonstrated in a 50‐cycle study.     

单分散大孔亲水弱阳离子交换填料的制备及其对鱼精蛋白的分离纯化

以自制的5.0 μm单分散大孔亲水交联聚甲基丙烯酸环氧丙酯(PGMA/EDMA)微球为基质,对其表面进行化学改性,合成弱阳离子交换色谱填料(WCX)。详细考察了该填料对标准蛋白质的分离性能、表面亲水性能、稳定性和重现性以及流速对蛋白保留的影响。实验结果表明,该色谱填料对蛋白的分离性能、重现性及稳定性良好;在流速为3 mL/min时,采用线性梯度洗脱,6 min内可分离4种标准碱性蛋白质,以溶菌酶测定的该填料的动力学吸附容量为29.86 mg/g。将其用于鱼精蛋白的分离纯化,经反相高效液相色谱测定纯化后鱼精蛋白的纯度为99.2%;与商品Shodex IEC SP-825强阳离子交换色谱柱比较,纯化结果几乎一样。     

Comparison of agarose and dextran-grafted agarose strong ion exchangers for the separation of protein aggregates

The control of aggregate levels in recombinant protein based drugs is a primary concern during process development and manufacture. In recent years, a novel class of dextran-grafted ion exchange matrices has gained popularity for process scale protein purification due to increased mass transfer rates and higher dynamic binding capacity compared to conventional matrices. Using bovine serum albumin and a monoclonal antibody as model proteins, we studied Sepharose FF and Sepharose XL ion exchangers for the separation of protein aggregates. Experimental results comparing linear gradient elution, stepwise elution, and flow-through chromatography for aggregate separation are described. Differences in performance for the various ion exchangers are discussed and modeled. Strategies for the optimization of protein aggregate separation are provided.     

Identification and refinement of a peptide affinity ligand with unique specificity for a monoclonal anti-tenascin-C antibody by screening of a phage display library

Using phage display technology, a 22-mer peptide was selected as a ligand with unique specificity for the murine monoclonal ST2146 antibody that recognizes the EGF repeats region of the human tumor-associated antigen tenascin-C. This peptide, synthesized in an 8-branched form to enhance its binding properties, is useful in replacing the native antigen in the affinity and immunoreactivity characterization of the ST2146 antibody and its biotinylated derivatives. Affinity resins, prepared by immobilizing the mimotope or its shorter 10-mer binding unit on a chromatographic support, were able to capture ST2146 directly from the hybridoma supernatant, with antibody recovery and host cell protein (HCP) reduction similar to or better than protein A sorbent, a purity degree exceeding 95%, and full recovery of antibody activity. The affinity constants of both peptides, as determined by frontal analysis of broad-zone elution affinity chromatography and BiaCore measurements, were very similar and included in a range suitable for affinity ligands. Column capacity, determined by applying a large excess of purified ST2146 to 1 mL of column bed volume, was close to 50 mg/mL for both resins. These matrices retain their ST2146 binding properties after various treatments, including sanitization, thus indicating very high stability in terms of ligand leakage and degradation. Moreover, the short form shows higher enzymatic stability, thus proving more suitable as ligand for ST2146 affinity purification.     

The distinctive separation attributes of mixed-mode resins and their application in monoclonal antibody downstream purification process

Increased upstream productivity and the continuous pressure to deliver high quality drug product have resulted in the development of new separation technologies and platform strategies for downstream purification processes of monoclonal antibodies (mAb). In this study, the separation attributes of three mixed-mode resins, Mercapto-Ethyl-Pyridine (MEP) hydrophobic charge induction resin, Capto adhere multi-modal anion exchange resin, and ceramic hydroxyapatite/fluoroapatite (CHT/CFT) resins, were investigated to define their roles in monoclonal antibody purification processes. We demonstrated that the multi-modal nature of ligands on mixed-mode resins allows the separation resolution to be honed, either through a single dominant mechanism or through mix-modal balanced purification strategies. In addition, the three mixed-mode resins present different purification powers for different types of impurities. We also demonstrated that besides enhancing chromatography separation and improve product quality, especially for high molecular weight (HMW) aggregate reduction, mixed-mode resins can also help to improve process efficiency in industrial-scale mAb drug manufacturing. Our results underscore the importance of selecting appropriate chromatography resins during DSP design to obtain the best overall process outcome.     

Calcium-modulated conformational affinity chromatography. Application to the purification of calmodulin and S100 proteins.

The purification of proteins by affinity chromatography is based on their highly specific interaction with an immobilized ligand followed by elution under conditions where their affinity towards the ligand is markedly reduced. Thus, a high-degree purification by a single chromatographic step is achieved. However, when several proteins in the crude mixture share affinity to a common immobilized ligand, they may not be resolved by affinity chromatography and subsequent "real" chromatographic purification steps may be required. It is shown that by using properly selected gradient elution conditions, the affinities of the various proteins towards the immobilized ligand may be gradually modulated and their separation may be achieved. This is exemplified by the isolation and separation of a group of Ca(2+)-activated proteins, Calmodulin, S100a and S100b, from bovine brain extract, using a melittin-Eupergit C affinity column which is developed with Ca(2+)-chelator gradients. As expected, separation of the three proteins into individual peaks, eluted in order of increasing affinity to the matrix, was obtained. Sigmoid selectivity curves calculated from the elution volumes under different elution conditions for each of the proteins were obtained, illustrating the chromatographic behaviour of the gradient affinity separation system.     

3种阴离子交换色谱固定相捕获细胞培养上清液中红细胞生成素的效果比较（英文）

Affinity and ion exchange conventional chromatography have been used to capture erythropoietin(EPO)from mammalian cell culture supernatant.Currently,chromatographic adsorbent perfusion is available,however a limited number of applications have been found in the literature.In this work,three anion exchange chromatographic supports(gel,membrane and monolithic)were evaluated in the capture step of the recombinant erythropoietin purification process.The influences of load and flow rate on each support performance were analyzed.Also the purity of the EPO molecules was determined.A productivity analysis,as a decision tool for larger scale implementation,was done.As a conclusion,the evaluated supports are technically suitable to capture EPO with adequate recovery and good purity.However,the monolithic column admits high operating velocity,showing the highest adsorption capacity and productivity.