The influence of single-pulse and tandem shock waves on bacteria

Tandem shock waves have shown to enhance kidney stone fragmentation during in vitro and in vivo extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (SWL). The purpose of this research was to study the influence of shock waves on the viability of two strains of bacteria in solution, and to verify if tandem shock waves increase microorganism death. A piezoelectric shock wave generator was modified to generate either standard (single-pulse) or tandem (dual-pulse) shock waves. E. coli and Listeria monocytogenes were exposed in vitro to thousands of standard shock waves. Another group was subjected to the same number of tandem shock waves with a delay of 450 μs. A third group was exposed to tandem shock waves having a 900-μs delay. No inactivation was observed for both microorganisms at up to 8,000 standard shock waves. About 40% of L. monocytogenes and 50% of E. coli were inactivated after treatment with tandem waves at a delay of 900 μs. Inactivation was less efficient for a delay of 400 μs. Our results could be useful in medicine, because infection stones are still a significant cause of morbidity and mortality after SWL. The use of tandem shock waves to treat persistent localized infections or as a novel non-thermal food-preservation method also might be possible.      

Analogy between soap film and gas dynamics. II. Experiments on one-dimensional motion of shock waves in soap films

This paper presents an experimental investigation of one-dimensional moving shock waves in vertical soap films. The shock waves were generated by bursting the films with a perforating spark. Images of propagating shock waves and small disturbances were recorded using a fast line scan CCD camera. An aureole and a shock wave preceding the rim of the expanding hole were clearly observed. These images are similar to the x-t diagrams in gas dynamics and give the velocities of shock and sound waves. The moving shock waves cause jumps in thickness. The variations of the induced Mach number, M₂ and the ratio of film thickness across the shock wave, δ ₂/δ ₁, are plotted versus the shock Mach number, M _s. Both results suggest that soap films are analogous to compressible gases with a specific heat ratio of γ≅1.0. Published online: 15 October 2002     

Experimental investigation on tunnel sonic boom

Upon the entrance of a high-speed train into a relatively long train tunnel, compression waves are generated in front of the train. These compression waves subsequently coalesce into a weak shock wave so that a unpleasant sonic boom is emitted from the tunnel exit. In order to investigate the generation of the weak shock wave in train tunnels and the emission of the resulting sonic boom from the train tunnel exit and to search for methods for the reduction of these sonic booms, a 1300 scaled train tunnel simulator was constructed and simulation experiments were carried out using this facility.In the train tunnel simulator, an 18 mm dia. and 200 mm long plastic piston moves along a 40 mm dia. and 25 m long test section with speed ranging from 60 to 100 m/s. The tunnel simulator was tilted 8° to the floor so that the attenuation of the piston speed was not more than 10 % of its entrance speed. Pressure measurements along the tunnel simulator and holographic interferometric optical flow visualization of weak shock waves in the tunnel simulator clearly showed that compression waves, with propagation, coalesced into a weak shock wave. Although, for reduction of the sonic boom in prototype train tunnels, the installation of a hood at the entrance of the tunnels was known to be useful for their suppression, this effect was confirmed in the present experiment and found to be effective particularly for low piston speeds. The installation of a partially perforated wall at the exit of the tunnel simulator was found to smear pressure gradients at the shock. This effect is significant for higher piston speeds. Throughout the series of train tunnel simulator experiments, the combination of both the entrance hood and the perforated wall significantly reduces shock overpressures for piston speeds ofu _p ranging from 60 to 100 m/s. These experimental findings were then applied to a real train tunnel and good agreement was obtained between the tunnel simulator result and the real tunnel measurements.     

The shock-wave structure in a two-velocity mixture of compressible media with different pressures

The problem of the shock-wave structure in a mixture of two compressible media with different velocities and pressures of components is considered. The problem is reduced to solving a boundary-value problem for two ordinary differential equations that describe the velocity relaxation and pressure equalization of the components. Using methods of the qualitative theory of dynamic systems on a plane, the existence and uniqueness of four types of waves are shown: (a) fully dispersed waves; (b) frozen-dispersed waves; (c) dispersed-frozen waves; (d) frozen waves of two-front configuration. A chart of solutions of the corresponding flow types is constructed in the plane of the following parameters: the initial velocity of the mixture and the initial volume concentration of one of the components. The numerical calculations conducted illustrate the obtained analytical structures of the shock wave. It is shown that the results obtained using the suggested mathematical model are in agreement with experimental data on the dependence of the velocity of the dispersed shock wave on the equilibrium pressure behind the shock-wave front for a mixture of silica sand and water. Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Siberian Division, Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk 630090. Translated from Prikladnaya Mekhanika i Tekhnicheskaya Fizika, Vol. 39, No. 2, pp. 10–19, March–April, 1998.     

Visualization of shock-wave formation processes during shock reflection at obstacles with multiple steps

According to standard textbooks on compressible fluid dynamics, a shock wave is formed by an accumulation of compression waves. However, the process by which an accumulated compression wave grows into a shock wave has never been visualized. In the present paper, the authors tried to visualize this process using a model wedge with multiple steps. This model is useful for generating a series of compression waves and can simulate a compression process that occurs in a shock tube. By estimating the triple-point trajectory angle, we demonstrated visually that an accumulated compression wave grows into a shock wave. Further reflection experiments over a rough-surface wedge confirmed the tendency for the triple point trajectory angle to reach the asymptotic value _s in the end.This work was first presented at the Symposium on Shock Waves, Japan 2002     

First observations on break-up of particle agglomerates in shock waves

The destruction of solid agglomerates suspended in argon by means of shock waves (1 <M _s < 5) has been studied experimentally using a conventional shock tube apparatus. The change in particle size was measured by time-dependent in situ laser light scattering of the particle ensemble in the shock wave. The test facilities used are given in details, and the principle of the Mie-theory, necessary for complete understanding of the data reduction, is described. In this paper data reduction and first analysis employing two independent trial solutions involving the Mie-theory for polydisperse, spherical particle-ensembles are presented. Three types of agglomerates suspended in argon with a mean initial size of about 1 gm were exposed to the shock wave and different size reduction behaviours were observed. The deagglomeration effect depends largely on the wave intensity and on the physico-chemical structure of the particle aggregates.     

Shock-unsteadiness model applied to oblique shock wave/turbulent boundary-layer interaction

Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes prediction of shock wave/turbulent boundary layer interactions can yield significant error in terms of the size of the separation bubble. In many applications, this can alter the shock structure and the resulting surface properties. Shock-unsteadiness modification of Sinha et al. (Physics of Fluids, Vol.15, No.8, 2003) has shown potential in improving separation bubble prediction in compression corner flows. In this article, the modification is applied to oblique shock wave interacting with a turbulent boundary layer. The challenges involved in the implementation of the shock-unsteadiness correction in the presence of multiple shock waves and expansion fans are addressed in detail. The results show that a robust implementation of the model yields appreciable improvement over standard k–ω turbulence model predictions.     

Comparison of different methods of measurement of pressure of underwater shock waves generated by electrical discharge

Different methods for measurement of strong underwater shock waves pressure pulses with peak pressures of up to 200 MPa and rise time of tens to hundreds of nanoseconds are described and compared. The experimental techniques include direct methods of pressure measurement using various electromechanical gauges such as quartz, carbon-based, and commercially available PCB gauges, and nondirect methods based on measurement of the velocity of the shock wave such as time-of-flight and fast-streak photography. Advantages and disadvantages of the used gauges and methods are discussed. The shock waves were produced by underwater electrical discharge (discharge current amplitude ≤100 kA, pulse duration ≤5 μs) initiated by an exploding wire. A good correspondence between the pressure amplitudes measured by the various gauges and methods was observed. The obtained dependence of the shock wave pressure on the distance from the discharge channel was found to be best fitted by a r ^−0.7 law. It is also shown that none of these methods can be used to determine the time evolution of the pressure behind the front of the shock wave.     

Cavitation phenomena in extracorporeal microexplosion lithotripsy

An experimental investigation was made of cavitation phenomena induced by underwater shock wave focusing applied to the extracorporeal microexplosion lithotripsy (microexplosion ESWL). Firstly an underwater microexplosion generated by detonation of a 10 mg silver azide pellet was studied and secondly underwater shock focusing and its induced cavitation phenomena were investgated. Underwater shock wave was focused by using a semi-ellipsoidal reflector in which a shock wave generated at the first focal point of the reflector was reflected and focused at the second focal point. It is found that an explosion product gas bubble did not produce any distinct rebound shocks. Meantime cavitation appeared after shock focusing at the second focal point where expansion waves originated at the exit of the reflector were simultaneously collected. A shock/bubble interaction is found to contribute not only to urinary tract stone disintegration but also tissue damage. The cavitation effect associated with the microexplosion ESWL was weaker in comparison with a spark discharge ESWL. The microexplosion ESWL is an effective method which can minimize the number of shock exposures hence decreasing tissue damage by conducting precise positioning of urinary tract stones.This article was processed using Springer-Verlag T_EX Shock Waves macro package 1.0 and the AMS fonts, developed by the American Mathematical Society.     

Navier–Stokes Computations in Micro Shock Tubes

Micro shock tube flows were simulated using unsteady 2D Navier–Stokes equations combined with boundary slip velocities and temperature jumps conditions. These simulations were performed using the parallel version of a multi-block finite-volume home code. Different initial low pressures and shock tube diameters allow to have the scaling ratio ReD/4L vary. The numerical results show a strong attenuation of the shock wave strength with a decrease of the hot flow values along the tube. When the scaling ratio decreases the shock waves can transform into compression waves. Comparison to the existing 1D models also shows the limit of these models.     

The effect of shock pressures on the inactivation of a marine Vibrio sp.

The effect of shock pressures on the inactivation of a marine Vibrio sp. was studied experimentally and numerically. In the experiment, an aluminum impactor plate accelerated by a gas gun was used to induce shock waves in a sealed aluminum container with cell suspension liquid inside. The shock pressures in the container were measured by a piezofilm gauge. Several 10–100 MPa of pressure were measured at the shock wave front. An FEM simulation, using the Johnson–Cook model for solid aluminum and the Tait equation for the suspension liquid, was carried out in order to know the generation mechanism of shock pressures in the aluminum container. The reflection, diffraction and interaction of shock waves at the solid–liquid boundaries in the aluminum container were reasonably predicted by the numerical simulation. The changes in shock pressures obtained from the computational simulation were in good agreement with those from the experiment. The number of viable cells decreased with the increase of peak pressures of the shock waves. Peak pressures higher than 200 MPa completely inactivated the cells. At this pressure, the cell structures were deformed like the shape of red blood cells, and some proteins leaked from the cells. These results indicate that the positive and negative pressure fluctuations generated by shock waves contribute to the inactivation of the marine Vibrio sp.      

Formation of shock waves in gas-liquid foams

The purpose of the present investigation is to analyze the phenomenon of shock wave formation in gas-liquid foams and to explain the qualitative differences which are found when comparing results from shock tube experiments performed with foams and bubbly liquids. It is well known that oscillatory pressure waves in bubbly liquids may reach an amplitude twice as large as that of the original pressure impulse. However, experiments showed that pressure disturbances in foams always attenuate without significant change in the wave pressure profile. In the present study this behavior is explained by analyzing shock wave formation using the Burgers equation which is derived from the conservation laws for a bubbly liquid. It is shown that the parameter of non linearity in the Burgers equation describing wave propagation in bubbly liquids is about 40 times higher than in foams. At the same time coefficient of bulk viscosity of a foam is about 10³ times greater than that of a bubbly liquid. This explains why in shock tube experiments with foams shock waves are not detected while they are easily observed when bubbly liquids are used under similar conditions.     

Numerical investigation of inviscid shock wave dynamics in an expansion tube

Highly complicated shock wave dynamics has been numerically calculated by solving the Euler equations for a circular shock tube suddenly expanded three times of the original tube diameter atx=0. Shock waves of different shock Mach number,M _s =1.5 and 2.0, have produced remarkably distinct blast jet structures. A planar shock wave took its final form after the blast by repeated Mach reflections of the blast wave: the first one at the wall and the second one at the central axis. The central Mach disc overtook and merged with the annular Mach stem before the planar shock wave was formed. In contrast to the blast wave which would propagate spherically in an open space, the present blast wave undergoes complex morphological transformation in the restricted flow passage, resulting in an unstable and oscillatory blast jet structure of highly rotational nature. The slipstream tube emanating from the shock tube exit corner decomposed into a chain of small vortex rings that interacted with the barrel shock of the jet, which caused periodic collapse of the jet structure. The finite volume-FCT formulation equipped with the time-dependenth-refinement adaptive unstructured triangular mesh technique in the present paper has contributed to resolution of the intricate physical discontinuities developing in the blast flow fields.     

August Toepler — The first who visualized shock waves

The scientific investigation of the nature of shock waves started 130 years ago with the advent of the schlieren method which was developed in the period 1859–1864 by August Toepler. At the very beginning applied to the visualization of heat and flow phenomena, he immediately turned to air shock waves generated by electric sparks, andsubjectively studied the propagation, reflection and refraction of shock waves. His new delay circuit in the microsecond time regime for the first time made it possible to vary electrically the delay time between a spark generating a shock wave and a second spark acting as a flash light source in his chlieren setup. In 1870 Toepler, together with Boltzmann, applied Jamin's interferometric refractometer and extended the visualization to very weak sound waves at the threshold of hearing. Toepler's pioneering schlieren method stimulated Ernst Mach and his team toobjectively investigate the nature of shock waves: they improved Toepler's time delay circuit; continued the study on the reflection of shock waves; introduced shadowgraphy as a modification of the schlieren method; photographed the propagation of shock waves generated by an electric spark and by supersonic projectiles, and improved interferometry. Based on a large number of original documents the paper illuminates the concomitant circumstances of the invention of the schlieren method and its first applications by others. Although the schlieren method is only one of the many methods I had to use, it is a very important one, and I believe that you will enjoy the results as much as I do. Ernst Mach     

HLLE++格式在高马赫数空腔流动模拟中的应用

空腔流动存在剪切层运动、涡脱落与破裂,以及激波与激波、激波与剪切层、激波与膨胀波和激波/涡/剪切层相互干扰等现象,流动非常复杂,特别是高马赫数(M>2)时,剪切层和激波更强,激波与激波干扰更严重,对数值格式的要求更高,既需要格式耗散小,对分离涡等有很高的模拟精度,又需要格式在激波附近具有较大的耗散,可以很好地捕捉激波,防止非物理解的出现。Roe和HLLC等近似Riemann解格式在高马赫数强激波处可能会出现红玉现象,而HLLE++格式大大改善了这种缺陷,在捕捉高超声速激波时避免了红玉现象的发生,同时还保持在光滑区域的低数值耗散特性。本文在结构网格下HLLE++格式的基础上,通过改进激波探测的求解,建立了基于非结构混合网格的HLLE++计算方法,通过无粘斜坡算例,验证了HLLE++格式模拟高马赫数流动的能力,并应用于高马赫数空腔流动的数值模拟,开展了网格和湍流模型影响研究,验证了方法模拟高马赫数空腔流动的可靠性和有效性。     

Shock wave propagation and admissibility criteria in a nonlinear dielectric medium

We study the propagation of electromagnetic shock waves in an isotropic nonlinear dielectric medium. In order to select the physical shocks among all the mathematical solutions the usualLax conditions are applied. However, here they do not appear sufficient since strong shocks are present and the differential system is not strictly hyperbolic. So, two additional criteria are studied, theentropy growth condition and thereflection and transmission criterion, and a comparative analysis is developed. Finally, some experimental checks are suggested considering in particular the possible shape changes of an initial shock wave during its propagation.     

Editorial

On behalf of the board of editors of the journal Shock Waves, I am pleased to give a brief overview of recent shock wave research activities. Shock waves are comprehensive representations of phenomena that appear in non-linear wave dynamics. Historically, shock wave phenomena started to be intensively investigated with the advent of high-speed gas-dynamics and these investigations are nowadays supported by the development of both super-computation and advanced experimental technology. Meanwhile, shock wave research has been expanding its scope to various interdisciplinary applications. A particular case is shock wave research in condensed matter which has a history as long as that of corresponding research in the field of gas-dynamics. However, although there are many dynamic similarities between shock wave motion in gases and condensed matter, the difference with respect to physical properties of both media was so dominating that for a long time research activities in these two fields have been regrettably rather isolated with only little communication between both scientific communities. Realizing that many methodologies are increasingly overlapping, it is now a good time for all of us - in the spirit of the advancement of science and technology - to try to look at shock wave phenomena in various media in order to understand their common features. The sheer variety of multi-faceted applications in shock wave research are reflected by an impressive number of international meetings such as the International Symposium on Shock Waves, the International Colloquium on the Dynamics of Explosions and Reactive Systems and the Conference on Shock Compression of Condensed Matter. In addition to these major international activities, many countries regularly organize national shock wave symposia. As a result of such activities the Asia-Pacific Shock Wave Research Society was established in 2003, whose wide membership includes researchers from the Asia-Pacific region and beyond. On the occasion of assuming the position as new Editor-in-Chief of the journal Shock Waves, I would like to thank my predecessor, Prof. Hans Grönig, for the many years of effort devoted to this task. I will continue to promote this journal as a major publishing platform that supports all international and interdisciplinary shock wave research activities and provides readers with an invaluable source of information.     

Application of underwater shock wave and laser-induced liquid jet to neurosurgery

Paper deals with applications of underwater shock waves to medicine. A historical development of underwater shock wave generation by using pulsed Ho:YAG laser beam irradiation in water is briefly described and an overview is given regarding potential applications of shock waves to neuro-surgery. The laser beam irradiation in a liquid-filled catheter produces water vapor bubble and shock waves intermittently produces micro-liquid jets in a controlled fashion from the exit of the catheter. Correlations between shock dynamics and bubble dynamics are emphasized. To optimize the jet motion, results of basic parametric studies are briefly presented. The liquid jet discharged from the catheter exit has an impulse high enough to clearly exhibit effectiveness for various medical purposes. In liquid jets we observed reasonably strong shock waves and hence invented a compact shock generator aiming to apply to microsurgery. We applied it to a rat's bone window and developed an effective method of brain protection against shock loading. The insertion of Gore-Tex® sheet is found to attenuate shock waves drastically even for very short stand off distance and its physical mechanism is clarified. The laser-induced liquid jet (LILJ) is successfully applied to soft tissue dissection. Animal experiments were performed and results of histological observations are presented in details. Results of animal experiments revealed that LILJ can sharply dissect soft tissue with a minimum amount of liquid consumption, while blood vessels larger than 0.2 mm in diameter are preserved. Shock waves and LILJ have a potential to be indispensable tools in neuro-surgery.This paper was based on work that was presented at the 2nd International Symposium on Interdisciplinary Shock Wave Research, Sendai, Japan, March 1–3, 2005.Communicated by K. Takayama PACS 42.62.Be, 47.40.-x, 42.62.-b     

Stability of Semi-Discrete Shock Profiles by Means of an Evans Function in Infinite Dimensions

Semi-discrete shock profiles are traveling wave solutions of hyperbolic systems of conservation laws under discretization in space. The existence of semi-discrete shocks has been investigated in earlier papers. Here the spectral stability of those nonlinear waves is addressed, and formulated in terms of a variational delay differential operator. Constructing a generalized Evans function, in infinite dimensions, it is shown how to derive stability criteria. Some examples are given when the criterion is fully explicit, e.g., for extreme Lax shocks. Additionally, connection is made with the alternative approach proposed by Chow, Mallet-Paret, and Shen (Journal of Differential Equations 1998), regarding the stability of traveling waves in general Lattice Dynamical Systems.     

Two-dimensional stress wave analysis in incompressible elastic solids

Two-dimensional stress waves in a general incompressible elastic solid are investigated. First, basic equations for simple waves and shock waves are presented for a general strain energy function. Then the characteristic wave speeds and the associated characteristic vectors are deduced. It is shown that there usually exist two simple waves and two shock waves. Finally, two examples are given for the case of plane strain deformation and antiplane strain deformation, respectively. It is proved that, in the case of plane strain deformation the oblique reflection problem of a plane shock is not solvable in general.