Constant amplitude and variable load history fatigue test results and predictions for cruciform and lap welds

Cruciform and lap welds were fatigue tested under constant amplitude axial load and SAE Bracket spectrum load conditions. For the cruciform joints, fatigue cracks generally initiate at the root but may initiate at the toe if higher bending stresses are induced by joint distortion. For lap welds, the stress ratio ($\text{R}$) and weld shape are the major factors influencing the fatigue crack initiation site.The fatigue test results were compared with predictions made using an analytical model developed by the authors, and good agreement between experiment and theory was observed. The model for the predictions assumes that the fatigue crack initiation period, which is the number of cycles for the initiation of a fatigue crack and its early growth and coalescence into a dominant fatigue crack, is the main portion of the total fatigue life at long lives.     

节理充填物厚度对运动裂纹扩展的影响

为研究冲击载荷作用下节理充填物厚度对裂纹扩展行为的影响，以石膏为有机玻璃预制裂纹充填物，利用新型数字激光动态焦散线实验系统，对3种不同节理充填物厚度的有机玻璃进行三点弯冲击实验。实验结果表明，相同冲击载荷作用下，竖向预制裂纹均竖直向上扩展，是典型的Ⅰ型裂纹，充填物越厚，竖向裂纹越容易起裂。竖直裂纹扩展至水平预制裂纹后，充填物厚度为1、3、5 mm的试件的水平预制裂纹汇聚能量的时间分别为433、2 200、2 580 μs，起裂时的应力强度因子分别为635.2、742.4、906.8 kN/m3/2，表明充填物越厚，水平裂纹越难起裂。水平预制裂纹扩展过程中共发生2次曲裂，是典型的Ⅰ-Ⅱ复合型裂纹，节理充填物越厚，其扩展轨迹越弯曲；当裂纹扩展至距离试件上边界3 mm时，扩展方向偏离第1次裂纹曲裂切线而朝向试件上边界扩展，试件最终断裂，测量发现充填物厚度为1、3、5 mm的试件的断裂点与冲击载荷作用点的距离分别为16.5、11.0、6.0 mm。     

不同应变率下蓝宝石透明陶瓷玻璃的力学响应

蓝宝石（A1₂O₃）是透明陶瓷玻璃,它相较传统陶瓷（A1₂O₃）有优良的透光性,而且保留了陶瓷优良的力学性能。利用电子拉伸机和分离式霍普金森杆设备对试样进行准静态应变率为(10?4、10?3、10?2 s?1)和4种动态应变率(850、1 100、1 300、1 450 s?1)下的单轴压缩力学行为,用高速摄像机记录了蓝宝石透明陶瓷玻璃试样在准静态和动态压缩下的破坏过程。实验结果表明:从加载过程中的应力应变曲线是由加载段和失效段组成的,该材料是典型的脆性材料,并且有明显的应变率效应,随着应变率的提高,蓝宝石透明陶瓷玻璃的抗压强度也会提高;准静态和动态压缩下蓝宝石透明陶瓷玻璃都是在宏观裂纹扩展作用下失效破坏。通过分析不同应变率下蓝宝石透明陶瓷玻璃的破坏过程,分析得到该材料的失效是在加载的过程中,在蓝宝石透明陶瓷玻璃承载能力最低的区域出现裂纹源,然后裂纹成形并沿着加载方向扩展,然后裂纹之间相互交错,最终达到饱和状态破坏失效;在高应变率下,极短的时间内产生多处裂纹源,需要更大的能量去使裂纹成形、扩展,宏观上就表现为应变率效应。     

基于声发射矩张量分析混凝土破坏的裂纹运动

从细观上看, 混凝土是一种由骨料、水泥浆基体、裂纹等组成的非均匀复合材料. 单轴准静态加载条件下, 应力应变曲线表现出明显的准脆性特征. 其变形破坏过程实质上是内部微裂纹产生、扩展和汇合的过程, 研究细观尺度的裂纹扩展演化将有助于深入了解混凝土的变形和破坏过程. 声发射作为一种物理检测方法可以获取材料内部细观损伤演化的物理信息. 本文基于声发射技术, 结合改进的时差定位算法和矩张量理论对声发射信号进行分析, 反演了混凝土巴西劈裂破坏中裂纹位置、裂纹类型以及裂纹面运动方向, 揭示了混凝土宏观拉伸破坏的细观裂纹扩展机制. 结果表明: 裂纹运动过程清晰地显示了混凝土内裂纹源首先在试件与载荷接触面附近产生, 之后聚集形成局部损伤区域, 并沿轴线向中心扩展(加载平面)以及裂纹从试件中间向表面扩展的动态过程(厚度方向); 裂纹运动体积可以作为裂纹形成、扩展过程中弹性能释放的度量, 初始裂纹成核时体积参数较小, 峰值载荷时, 裂纹运动体积最大达到$5.93\times10^{-4}$ mm$^{3}$; 混凝土宏观尺度的拉伸破坏在细观尺度上存在有拉伸裂纹、混合裂纹以及剪切裂纹; 拉伸裂纹最多, 占裂纹总数约为60%, 剪切裂纹最少, 约占裂纹总数的10%; 拉伸裂纹运动主导了试件的宏观劈裂破坏.      

动、静裂纹作用偏置效应的动焦散冲击实验

为了研究冲击荷载作用下脆性材料中运动裂纹与静止裂纹的相互作用，选取动态载荷下断裂行为与岩石材料类似且本身光学特性较好的有机玻璃（PMMA）作为实验材料，试件尺寸为220 mm×50 mm×5 mm，采用激光切割制作长度5 mm的预制裂纹和长度10 mm的静止裂纹，预制裂纹位于试件的底部边缘中心，静止裂纹的中心位于试件水平轴线。将静止裂纹偏置距离作为单一变量，采用数字激光动态焦散实验系统对含不同缺陷的PMMA进行三点弯曲实验，并结合几何分形理论研究不同偏置距离下运动裂纹的分形规律。实验结果表明:存在预制裂纹与静止裂纹的临界偏置距离（6 mm），该条件下裂纹轨迹对应的分形维数值最大，裂纹轨迹的规则程度最低，裂纹破坏形态最复杂。当预制裂纹与静止裂纹的偏置距离在0～6 mm时，裂纹Ⅰ起裂后垂直向上扩展一段距离，与静止裂纹交汇，并停滞一段时间后发生二次起裂，直至贯穿试件，偏置距离和交汇点竖向坐标值呈近似线性函数关系。偏置距离的存在不会影响裂纹Ⅰ的起裂时间和应力强度因子，但会显著减小裂纹Ⅱ的动态应力强度因子，且停滞时长随偏置距离的增大而逐渐缩短。当偏置距离大于临界偏置距离时，运动裂纹不再与静止裂纹交汇而是呈拱状向试件上边缘扩展直至贯穿，裂纹的起偏时间、起偏位置也会出现明显的滞后现象。     

Damage accumulation and crack growth in bilinear materials with softening: Application of strain energy density theory

A pseudo-elastic damage-accumulation model is developed by application of the strain energy density theory. The three-point bending specimen is analyzed to illustrate the crack growth characteristics according to a linear elastic softening constitutive law that is typical of concrete materials. Damage accumulation is accounted for by the decrease of elastic modulus and fracture toughness. Both of these effects are assessed by means of the strain energy density functions in the elements around a slowly moving crack. The rate of change of the strain energy density factor S with crack growth as expressed by the relation dS/da = constant is shown to describe the failure behavior of concrete. Results are obtained for different loading steps that yield different slopes of lines in an S versus a (crack length) plot. The lines rotate about the common intersect in an anti-clockwise direction as the load steps are increased. The intersect shifts upward according to increase in the specimen size. In this way, the combined interaction of material properties, load steps and specimen geometry and size are easily analyzed in terms of the failure mode or behavior that can change from the very brittle to the ductile involving stable crack growth. An upper limit on specimen or structural size is established beyond which stable crack growth ceases to occur and failure corresponds to unstable crack propagation or catastrophic fracture. The parameters that control the failure mode are the threshold values of the strain energy density function (dW/dV)_c and the strain energy density factor S_c.     

A viscoplastic study of crack-tip deformation and crack growth in a nickel-based superalloy at elevated temperature

Viscoplastic crack-tip deformation behaviour in a nickel-based superalloy at elevated temperature has been studied for both stationary and growing cracks in a compact tension (CT) specimen using the finite element method. The material behaviour was described by a unified viscoplastic constitutive model with non-linear kinematic and isotropic hardening rules, and implemented in the finite element software ABAQUS via a user-defined material subroutine (UMAT). Finite element analyses for stationary cracks showed distinctive strain ratchetting behaviour near the crack tip at selected load ratios, leading to progressive accumulation of tensile strain normal to the crack-growth plane. Results also showed that low frequencies and superimposed hold periods at peak loads significantly enhanced strain accumulation at crack tip. Finite element simulation of crack growth was carried out under a constant ΔK-controlled loading condition, again ratchetting was observed ahead of the crack tip, similar to that for stationary cracks.A crack-growth criterion based on strain accumulation is proposed where a crack is assumed to grow when the accumulated strain ahead of the crack tip reaches a critical value over a characteristic distance. The criterion has been utilized in the prediction of crack-growth rates in a CT specimen at selected loading ranges, frequencies and dwell periods, and the predictions were compared with the experimental results.     

爆炸荷载作用下两平行裂纹对扩展中裂纹的影响规律

用实验和数值模拟方法，研究在爆炸载荷下岩体内部一对平行裂纹对扩展主裂纹的影响规律。实验中，采用带有中心装药孔及预制裂纹的砂岩圆盘试件，利用由示波器、超动态应变仪及裂纹扩展计所组成的测试系统，监测主裂纹扩展速度和扩展距离；数值模拟中，采用了AUTODYN软件进行，模拟了主裂纹及两平行裂纹的扩展规律，对岩石材料，采用线性状态方程及最大拉应力失效准则，并在两平行裂纹间设置相应的观测点记录应力曲线。通过实验与数值模拟分析，得到:爆炸载荷下，紧随冲击波后的稀疏波经过两平行裂纹面反射后变成压缩波，并在两平行裂纹间产生垂直于主裂纹扩展方向的压应力，对裂纹的扩展有压制、止裂作用；而且，这种压应力的大小与两平行裂纹的间距有关，进而导致了不同的止裂效果，影响裂纹的扩展速度及最终扩展长度。     

巴西圆盘泥岩试件裂纹扩展及应变演化实验研究

为了研究准静态加载条件下岩石试件巴西劈裂裂纹扩展规律,采用MTS试验机进行准静态加载,同时用高速摄像机记录裂纹扩展过程。采用白光数字散斑处理软件对摄像机记录的照片进行处理,得到试件裂纹扩展过程中应变场的演化情况。通过实验和分析可以看出,由于端部效应及加载方式的原因,因此裂纹起裂点在底部加载部位;泥岩试件表面裂纹的平均扩展速度为252m/s;岩石的非均质性即内部微缺陷、微裂纹使得泥岩试样的开裂并不是沿着中心直径方向,而是偏离一定的角度,初始偏离角度约为17°。裂纹扩展过程可以划分为三个阶段:泥岩试件宏观变形阶段(宏观无裂纹)、宏观裂纹稳定扩展阶段、宏观裂纹动态张裂阶段。同时,在裂纹扩展过程中,表面第一主应变场、水平位移场等变化明显,在开裂部位第一主应变最大。通过对圆盘泥岩试件裂纹扩展实验研究,可为研究岩石破裂及其演化规律提供依据。     

Failure loads of spot welds under combined opening and shear static loading conditions

Failure loads of spot welds are investigated under combined opening and shear static loading conditions. Square-cup specimens were used to obtain the failure loads of mild steel spot welds under a range of combined opening and shear loads. Optical micrographs of the cross-sections of spot welds before and after failure were examined to understand the failure processes under different combinations of loads. The experimental results indicate that under nearly pure opening loads, shear failure occurs in the heat affected zone along the nugget circumferential boundary. Under combined opening and shear loading conditions, necking/shear failure starts near the nugget in the stretching side of the base metal sheet. According to the experimental observations, a simple lower bound limit load analysis is conducted. The results of the lower bound limit load analysis quantitatively agree with those of the experiments. A simple closed-form equation is proposed to characterize the failure loads of spot welds under combined opening and shear static loading conditions. The failure load is expressed as a function of the tensile strength of the base metal, the nugget size, the sheet thickness, the loading angle for characterization of combined loads, and an empirical coefficient for the given welding schedule.     

Moiré techniques for measuring strains during welding

The present work measures dynamic strains near welds using a projected-grating moiré technique. Experimental procedures are described for producing the orthogonal submaster gratings and etched heat-resistant specimen gratings necessary for this work. A modification of the gridanalyzer method allows all strain information to be obtained from a single photograph. A mathematical procedure combines fringe patterns from small adjacent sections of a surface into a larger continuous pattern. Computerized regression techniques enable more rapid and accurate analysis of the data. Results from welds in an Al?Mg alloy show the feasibility of dynamic welding-strain analysis using this approach. Welding deformation is found to be almost entirely shear straining, which explains the nature and orientation of high-temperature cracks sometimes found near welds.     

服役环境下腐蚀坑等效为表面裂纹的有效性分析

对取自退役飞机机翼蒙皮的光滑试件进行了等幅疲劳试验,通过疲劳断口分析得到了服役环境下飞机主体材料LY12CZ 铝合金蚀坑的拓扑特征.基于飞机结构的实际腐蚀尺寸,将蚀坑的宽度和深度作为等效裂纹的长轴和短轴,并应用 Stress Check 软件对蚀坑等效为裂纹的可行性进行了有限元分析.结果表明:实际蚀坑与等效裂纹对结构应力分布的影响十分相似;应力强度因子在蚀坑等效前后数值大小和变化趋势不大.在分析蚀坑对典型试件疲劳寿命影响时将蚀坑等效成半椭圆形裂纹,选取 Walker 公式作为扩展速率模型,并与试验值进行了对比.结果表明:预测值与试验值比较吻合,最大误差为9.23%,满足工程需求.     

Influence of load amplitude and uniaxial tensile properties on fatigue crack growth

The rate at which energy is accumulated within a unit volume of material in fatigue is assumed to depend not only on load-time history but also on the specimen size and geometry in addition to material type. A threshold level for the hysteresis strain energy density function accumulated in the material is used for predicting macrocrack growth. This is accomplished by application of the incremental theory of plasticity for each increment of crack growth. The accumulated hysteresis strain energy density factor ΔS to crack growth increment Δa ratio is found to be constant for fixed specimen size and loading, i.e., . Results are obtained for the cylindrical bar specimens with a penny-shaped defect at the center subjected to a constant amplitude and frequency loading. The resistance curves in the ΔS versus Δa plot are parallel lines as specimen size is altered. This information provides a rational means for predicting the influence of specimen size on fatigue lifetime.The results are also compared with those found for geometrically similar plate specimens with line cracks. Cylinder bar specimens of the same material are found to sustain more load cycles prior to catastrophic failure.     

核电690合金传热管微动疲劳试验及损伤机理分析

核电蒸汽发生器传热管在微幅磨损与交变载荷的作用下形成微动疲劳,导致其表面裂纹萌生和扩展乃至破裂,从而影响反应堆的安全. 为研究径向载荷以及轴向交变应力对690合金管微动疲劳寿命的影响规律,开展690合金管管材的微动疲劳试验,获得690合金管管材的微动疲劳寿命曲线,并与相关研究数据进行对比分析,以便探讨材料在微动疲劳下的寿命模型. 对不同载荷下的690合金管试样的磨痕表面进行三维形貌和扫描电镜观测,分析磨损表面的损伤机理;对不同载荷下的690合金管试样断口的宏观与微观形貌进行表征,分析裂纹萌生、起裂过程及其失效机理. 结果表明690合金管与403不锈钢(SS)抗振条间的磨损机理为剥层及磨粒磨损;690合金管在径向载荷作用下于微动磨损处产生裂纹源,裂纹在轴向交变应力的作用下不断向内部扩展,最终导致断裂;其断裂形式为解理疲劳断裂.      

Periodic cracking of films supported on compliant substrates

When a tensile strain is applied to a film supported on a compliant substrate, a pattern of parallel cracks can channel through both the film and substrate. A linear-elastic fracture-mechanics model for the phenomenon is presented to extend earlier analyses in which cracking was limited to the film. It is shown how failure of the substrate reduces the critical strain required to initiate fracture of the film. This effect is more pronounced for relatively tough films. However, there is a critical ratio of the film to substrate toughness above which stable cracks do not form in response to an applied load. Instead, catastrophic failure of the substrate occurs simultaneously with the propagation of a single channel crack. This critical toughness ratio increases with the modulus mismatch between the film and the substrate, so that periodic crack patterns are more likely to be observed with relatively stiff films. With relatively low values of modulus mismatch, even a film that is more brittle than the substrate can cause catastrophic failure of the substrate. Below the critical toughness ratio, there is a regime in which stable crack arrays can be formed in the film and substrate. The depth of these arrays increases, while the spacing decreases, as the strain is increased. Eventually, the crack array can become deep enough to cause substrate failure.     

Ultrasonic sizing of embedded vertical cracks in ferritic steel welds

Embedded vertical cracks are very often encountered in structural components necessitating reliable procedure for determining their size. Specialized ultrasonic techniques are required for estimation of through thickness height of these cracks [Mater. Eval. (1970) 28; J. NDI 26 (1977) 320; NND (1975) 146]. The conventional pulse-echo technique has serious limitations for quantitative estimation of vertical cracks because it is subject to variations due to reflectivity, coupling factors etc. The present study aims to improve the accuracy of embedded crack height measurement based on transit time rather than the reflected amplitude [NDT Int. (1982) 315; J. JSNDT 27 (1978) 118]. A unique method has been developed for generating known sizes of fatigue cracks ranging from 2.5 to 18 mm in height and 15 mm in length. These cracks were generated in rectangular steel specimens and subsequently embedded at predetermined locations using welding. These welded specimens containing the embedded vertical cracks were examined using ultrasonic techniques based on transit time like (a) flaw tip echo method and (b) mode conversion method. Using both the techniques excellent agreement was obtained between the estimated crack height and actual crack height with an accuracy of ±1 mm.     

Size effect of cylindrical specimens with fatigue cracks

The rate at which energy is accumulated within a unit volume of material in fatigue is assumed to depend not only on load-time history but also on the specimen size and geometry in addition to material type. A threshold level for the hysteresis strain energy density function accumulated in the material is used for predicting macrocrack growth. This is accomplished by application of the incremental theory of plasticity for each increment of crack growth. The accumulated hysteresis strain energy density factor ΔS to crack growth increment Δa ratio is found to be constant for fixed specimen size and loading, i.e., $\text{ΔS}\text{Δa}\text{=}\text{const}$. Results are obtained for the cylindrical bar specimens with a penny-shaped defect at the center subjected to a constant amplitude and frequency loading. The resistance curves in the ΔS versus Δa plot are parallel lines as specimen size is altered. This information provides a rational means for predicting the influence of specimen size on fatigue lifetime.The results are also compared with those found for geometrically similar plate specimens with line cracks. Cylinder bar specimens of the same material are found to sustain more load cycles prior to catastrophic failure.     

Stress state characterization of delamination cracks in [0/90] symmetric laminates by BEM

The presence in a laminate of plies oriented at 90° with respect to the preferred direction of load generates almost immediately the appearance in these plies of cracks transverse to the load (parallel to the fibres in the lamina). These cracks reach the interface with the neighbouring ply, which in this paper will be considered oriented 0° with respect to the direction of the load. This may cause the bifurcation of the crack, which now appears propagating as a delamination crack between the two plies. The objective of this study is to characterize the stress state at the tip of both, the transverse crack in the 90° ply reaching the interface with the 0° ply, and the delamination crack for different lengths of the debonding. The analysis is performed by means of the Boundary Element Method allowing contact, without or with friction, to take place between the faces of the crack. The plies are considered as equivalent homogeneous bodies under a generalized plane strain state. The results are compared with those predicted by the open and contact models of Interfacial Fracture Mechanics. Accurate knowledge of the stress state at the neighbourhood of the tips of the cracks studied is necessary to generate failure criteria based on Fracture Mechanics parameters to predict the appearance and growth of the type of damage described.     

脆性PMMA带板中的动态裂纹传播实验

设计了一种研究裂纹在脆性带板(Strip)中传播行为的实验装置。将矩形无预制裂纹的脆性有机玻璃(PMMA)试件上下边固支,在万能试验机上施加拉伸载荷直到给定幅值,然后在试件侧边中央部位开启一个尖锐裂纹。由于预加的拉伸载荷作用,新开启的裂纹将沿试件中部快速传播,导致整个平板试件断裂。采用印刷在试件表面的导电断裂丝记录裂纹的动态传播历史。设计了一种逻辑电路,可将多达128路电阻丝的断裂信号转换为1路输出信号,使用高速波形记录仪测量该信号,得到裂纹传播距离与时间关系。对不同形状的试件施加不同幅度的预加载荷,完成断裂实验,确定了裂纹的稳定传播速度。通过大量实验,获得了材料中稳定裂纹速度v0与动态裂纹传播能Gc之间的关系。测试结果表明:PMMA的传播能Gc是传播速度v0的递增函数;当裂纹平均的稳定速度超过某一临界值时,出现明显的速度振荡。