Dynamic fragmentation of powders in spherical geometry

Experimental evidence from a wide range of sources shows that the expanding cloud of explosively disseminated material comprises of “particles” or fragments which have different dimensions from those associated with the original material. Photographic evidence shows jets or fingers behind these expanding fragments. Powders and liquids have often been used to surround explosives to act as blast mitigants; this is the main driver for our research. Other examples of areas where these features are observed include fuel air explosives and enhanced blast explosives as well as quasi-static pressure mitigation systems. In this paper, we consider the processes occurring when an explosive interacts with a surrounding layer of powder in spherical geometry. Results from explosive experiments designed to investigate the effects of powder grain size and powder fill-to-burster charge mass ratio ( \(F\) / \(B\) ) are presented and compared with results from numerical modelling to explore what determines the primary fragment size distribution resulting from explosive dissemination of a layer of material and when this process begins. The evidence clearly shows that the process starts during the first wave transit period of the powder material and, despite the surrounding material initially being a loose powder, shows the characteristics of a brittle fracture mechanism. Later time video evidence shows the same number of jets or fingers as are identified by X-rays of the early, primary fragmentation process. The number of fragments is only a very weak function of the initial grain size of the powder.     

Experimental technique for generating fast high-density shock waves with phased linear explosive shock tubes

The sequential detonation of a layer of explosive surrounding a pressurized tube can be used to generate fast, high-density shock waves by means of a piston-like implosive pinch travelling at the detonation velocity of the explosive. A novel technique has been developed to extend the regime of operation to piston velocities greater than the detonation velocity of known explosives. This technique consists of cutting a slit in the tamper of a conventional explosive shock tube and introducing a phased detonation wave into the explosive cladding. Preliminary results indicate that quasi-steady shocks can be generated in helium with velocities between 13–17 km/s for initial fill pressures of 6.9 MPa.     

Optical measurement and scaling of blasts from gram-range explosive charges

Laboratory-scale experiments with gram-range explosive charges are presented. Optical shadowgraphy and high-speed digital imaging are used to measure the explosive-driven shock-wave position as a function of time. From this, shock Mach number-versus-distance from the explosion center can be found. These data then yield the peak overpressure and duration, which are the key parameters in determining the potential damage from an explosion as well as the TNT equivalent of the explosive. Piezoelectric pressure gage measurements of overpressure duration at various distances from the explosive charges compare well with theoretical calculations. A scaling analysis yields an approach to relate the gram-range blast to a large-scale blast from the same or different explosives. This approach is particularly suited to determining the properties and behavior of exotic explosives like triacetone triperoxide (TATP). Results agree with previous observations that the concept of a single TNT equivalence value is inadequate to fully describe an explosive yield, rather TNT equivalence factor and overpressure duration should be presented as functions of radius.      

不同炸药性能对爆破振动效应的影响

从岩石内炸药爆轰能量释放形式的角度,结合现场实时爆破振动监测数据,对比分析2种不同炸药性能的炸药产生的爆破振动特性,并对质点振动速度峰值的衰减规律及爆破振动持续时间进行回归分析.结果表明:除单响炸药量和爆心距,炸药自身性能对爆破振动效应的衰减规律和振动持续时间也有很大影响.     

Numerical simulation of long-duration blast wave evolution in confined facilities

The objective of this research effort was to investigate the quasi-steady flow field produced by explosives in confined facilities. In this effort we modeled tests in which a high explosive (HE) cylindrical charge was hung in the center of a room and detonated. The HEs used for the tests were C-4 and AFX 757. While C-4 is just slightly under-oxidized and is typically modeled as an ideal explosive, AFX 757 includes a significant percentage of aluminum particles, so long-time afterburning and energy release must be considered. The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL)-produced thermo-chemical equilibrium algorithm, “Cheetah”, was used to estimate the remaining burnable detonation products. From these remaining species, the afterburning energy was computed and added to the flow field. Computations of the detonation and afterburn of two HEs in the confined multi-room facility were performed. The results demonstrate excellent agreement with available experimental data in terms of blast wave time of arrival, peak shock amplitude, reverberation, and total impulse (and hence, total energy release, via either the detonation or afterburn processes.     

温压炸药的特性及发展现状

温压炸药的爆炸涉及到起爆、爆轰、冲击波的传播与反射、多相湍流和多模化学反应等, 是一个多尺度、多物质、多因素、多物理场耦合过程, 深化温压炸药高效释能的关键基础理论, 揭示温压爆炸的反应机理并有效控制和利用是温压武器创新发展的关键科学问题, 对高威力温压炸药的配方设计、温压武器的研制和使用具有重要指导意义. 本文描述了温压爆炸的基本原理, 讨论了温压炸药的概念和内涵, 从炸药种类、释能特点、能量构成、爆炸反应机制、爆炸效应增强机理、杀伤机制等方面阐述了温压炸药的特征, 分析了温压炸药有限空间内部爆炸威力的评估方法以及温压炸药的研发状况, 并提出了相关发展建议, 以期为高威力温压炸药的设计、温压弹的研制及毁伤评估提供指导.      

含铝纤维复合炸药的能量输出和力学强度

通过空中爆炸实验,研究了铝纤维对爆炸能量输出的影响,结果表明:wAl=0.20的TNT/Al,冲击 波压力峰值为TNT 的1.19倍,TNT 当量为TNT 的1.29倍;wAl=0.20的RDX/Al,冲击波压力峰值为 RDX的1.20倍,爆热为TNT的1.64倍,是RDX的1.31倍。通过抗压实验,研究了铝纤维对炸药力学强度 的影响,结果表明,铝纤维能增强TNT炸药的力学强度,破坏应力为6.8MPa,应变为0.043。铝纤维对炸药 能量和力学强度的双重增强特性,可以为现代高性能炸药设计提供参考。     

浅埋炸药爆炸形貌及其冲击作用效应

为研究浅埋炸药爆炸形貌及其冲击作用效应,提出了一套新型试验工装,通过浅埋砂爆试验,系统探究了浅埋爆炸过程中冲击波的传播、爆炸产物与砂土的喷射轨迹、靶板的变形形貌以及爆炸载荷的空间分布情况。结果表明:浅埋爆炸在空气中产生冲击波,其传播速度大于爆炸产物与砂土的喷射速度;起爆后的爆炸产物与砂土迅速向外喷射,体积随时间不断膨胀,撞击到靶板后向四周扩散;通过特 殊设计的试验工装与靶板,定性得出浅埋砂爆载荷产生的冲量在空间中呈非均匀分布,即中间最大,向四周逐渐减小。对比分析2次不同试验,发现炸药埋深影响爆炸产物和砂土喷射时的相对位置:埋深较小时,爆炸产物会冲破覆盖的砂层,直接作用到靶板;埋深较大时,爆炸产物基本被砂层包覆,随砂土共同作用到靶板;此外,增大炸药埋深会延缓爆炸产物与砂土的喷射时间。砂土的类型直接影响靶板的变形形貌,按北约标准AEP-55配做的砂土不仅使靶板产生整体弯曲变形,还在靶板上形成大量凹坑,产生侵彻效果,而普通的河砂仅使靶板产生整体弯曲变形,无明显的侵彻效果。     

Simulation of impulse effects from explosive charges containing metal particles

The propagation of an explosive blast wave containing inert metal particles is investigated numerically using a robust two-phase methodology with appropriate models to account for real gas behavior, inter-phase interactions, and inter-particle collisions to study the problem of interest. A new two-phase Eulerian–Lagrangian formulation is proposed that can handle the dense nature of the flow-field. The velocity and momentum profiles of the gas and particle phases are analyzed and used to elucidate the inter-phase momentum transfer, and its effect on the impulsive aspects of heterogeneous explosive charges. The particles are found to pick up significant amounts of momentum and kinetic energy from the gas, and by virtue of their inertia, are observed to sustain it for a longer time. The impulse characteristics of heterogeneous explosives are compared with a homogeneous explosive containing the same amount of high explosive, and it is observed that the addition of solid particles augments the impulsive loading significantly in the near-field, and to a smaller extent in the far-field. The total impulsive loading is found to be insensitive to the particle size added to the explosive charge above a certain cut-off radius, but the individual impulse components are found to be sensitive, and particles smaller than this cut-off size deliver about 8% higher total impulse than the larger ones. Overall, this study provides crucial insights to understand the impulsive loading characteristics of heterogeneous explosives.     

RDX基铝纤维炸药空中爆炸性能

将铝纤维炸药与传统铝粉炸药和RDX炸药进行空中爆炸实验并得到压力时程曲线,经过分析计算得到3种炸药的压力峰值、二次击波、正相持续时间以及冲量。结果表明:铝纤维炸药的压力峰值相对于RDX没有明显提高,但其压力时程曲线衰减速度慢于RDX的,使铝纤维炸药的正相持续时间大于RDX,铝纤维炸药的冲击波冲量相对于RDX的平均提高了18%,与铝粉炸药的相当。铝纤维炸药的二次击波超压幅值与到达时间与铝粉炸药的接近,而铝纤维炸药的二次击波到达时间早于RDX,说明二次击波的超压幅值与到达时间与炸药类型有关。     

非理想炸药在混凝土介质中的爆炸做功特性

为了研究非理想炸药的做功能力,对TNT、PBXN-109、AFX-757和CL-20基炸药进行了混凝土介质内爆炸实验,测量了实验炸药爆炸形成的混凝土腔体容积,通过量纲分析和实验数据建立了混凝土腔体容积的计算模型,并采用自行设计的混凝土腔体容积方法评价了炸药的爆炸做功特性。结果表明,混凝土腔体容积法能够用于评估非理想炸药的做功能力,单位质量同类型炸药的混凝土腔体容积基本一致。混凝土腔体容积与炸药能量(或炸药质量与爆热的乘积)存在线性关系,炸药混凝土中内爆炸的相对做功能力可以通过爆热当量确定。     

Characterization of the Mixing Layer Resulting from the Detonation of Heterogeneous Explosive Charges

A dense, two-phase numerical methodology is used to study the mixing layer developing behind the detonation of a heterogeneous explosive charge, i.e., a charge comprising of a high explosive with metal particles. The filtered Navier–Stokes equations are solved in addition to a sub-grid kinetic energy equation, along with a recently developed Eulerian–Lagrangian formulation to handle dense flow-fields. The mixing layer resulting from the post-detonation phase of the explosion of a nitromethane charge consisting of inert steel particles is of interest in this study. Significant mixing and turbulence effects are observed in the mixing layer, and the rms of the radial velocity component is found to be about 25% higher than that of the azimuthal and zenith velocity components due to the flow being primarily radial. The mean concentration profiles are self-similar in shape at different times, based on a scaling procedure used in the past for a homogeneous explosive charge. The peak rms of concentration profiles are 23–30% in intensity and decrease in magnitude with time. The behavior of concentration gradients in the mixing layer is investigated, and stretching along the radial direction is observed to decrease the concentration gradients along the azimuth and zenith directions faster than the radial direction. The mixing and turbulence effects in the mixing layer subsequent to the detonation of the heterogeneous explosive charge are superior to that of a homogeneous explosive charge containing the same amount of the high explosive, exemplifying the role played by the particles in perturbing the flow-field. The non-linear growth of the mixing layer width starts early for the heterogeneous explosive charge, and the rate is reduced during the implosion phase in comparison with the homogeneous charge. The turbulence intensities in the mixing layer for the heterogeneous explosive charge are found to be nearly independent of the particle size for two different sizes considered in the initial charge. Overall, this study has provided some useful insights on the mixing layer characteristics subsequent to the detonation of heterogeneous explosives, and has also demonstrated the efficacy of the dense, multiphase formulation for such applications.     

新型复合炸药DN-1的能量输出特性与低易损性研究

为实现兼具高能量输出与低易损性两方面的要求,研发了一种以2,4-二硝基苯甲醚(DNAN)为载体的复合炸药DN-1.用爆炸压力测试系统研究了DN-1炸药的能量输出特性,并用隔板实验测试了DN-1的冲击波感度.结果表明,DN-1炸药的冲击波超压峰值是TNT的1.6倍,冲击波比能是TNT的1.67倍,冲击波感度L50=7.64mm.其综合性能优于TNT等传统炸药.     

多元混合PBX炸药冲击起爆的多元Duan-Zhang-Kim反应速率模型研究

提出了多元混合PBX炸药孔隙塌缩热点模型新的处理方法，构建了新的细观反应速率模型，系列数值模拟结果与实验结果均一致，表明该细观反应速率模型可较好地描述和预测炸药组分配比及颗粒度对多元混合PBX炸药冲击起爆过程的影响。PBX炸药冲击起爆过程主要受热点点火过程和燃烧反应过程共同作用:HMX占主导成分的PBXC03炸药，起爆压力低，冲击起爆过程受热点点火影响较明显，热点点火后的燃烧反应速度较快，表现为加速反应特性；TATB占主导成分的钝感PBXC10炸药，起爆压力高，冲击起爆过程主要受点火后的燃烧反应过程控制，且点火后燃烧反应速度较慢，表现为稳定反应特性。     

Modeling spherical explosions with aluminized energetic materials

This paper deals with the numerical solution and validation of a reactive flow model dedicated to the study of spherical explosions with an aluminized energetic material. Situations related to air blast as well as underwater explosions are examined. Such situations involve multiscale phenomena associated with the detonation reaction zone, the aluminium reaction zone, the shock propagation distance and the bubble oscillation period. A detonation tracking method is developed in order to avoid the detonation structure computation. An ALE formulation is combined to the detonation tracking method in order to solve the material interface between detonation products and the environment as well as shock propagation. The model and the algorithm are then validated over a wide range of spherical explosions involving several types of explosives, both in air and liquid water environment. Large-scale experiments have been done in order to determine the blast wave effects with explosive compositions of variable aluminium content. In all situations the agreement between computed and experimental results is very good.     

Shock and shear initiation of explosive

Three reaction-rate models, Forest Fire, Arrhenius and a combined Forest Fire and Arrhenius, are incorporated in the hydrocode DEFEL. Simulations with this code for PBX-9404 explosive for bare and covered explosives by fragment impact are made. Results confirm the well-known shock-initiation theory for bare explosives. For explosives with a thick cover plate, code results show macroscopic shear initiation, as proposed by Howe (1985) and Frey (1981).This article was processed using Springer-Verlag TEX Shock Waves macro package 1990.     

在两层不同爆速炸药滑移爆轰作用下飞板运动的数值计算研究

本文研究用低爆速炸药复盖高爆速炸药在定滑移爆轰作用下飞板运动的计算方法,并对惯性复盖与炸药复盖的结果作出相互比较。     

Model of explosive pulsed vaporization of dielectric liquids by intense laser irradiation of their surfaces

The mechanism of explosive vaporization interaction of laser radiation with matter is studied theoretically. It is shown that, in dielectric liquids with a free surface, periodic explosive boiling is possible if the laser radiation intensity exceeds the rate of heat transfer from the region of laser radiation absorption. Analytical expressions are obtained to estimate the pulsating boiling period and the thickness of the surface liquid layer dispersed by fluctuation vapor bubbles during each boiling. The degree of absorption of laser radiation by the aerosol formed above the liquid surface is estimated. __________ Translated from Prikladnaya Mekhanika i Tekhnicheskaya Fizika, Vol. 49, No. 6, pp. 17–24, November–December, 2008.     

温压炸药的爆炸温度

根据温压炸药的爆炸特性,采用红外热成像仪研究温压炸药的爆炸温度。通过对实验结果的分析发现,与等量TNT相比,温压炸药爆炸云团温度较高,高温持续时间是TNT的2~5倍,高温云团体积可达TNT的2~10倍,体现了温压炸药相对于传统高能炸药的温度场优势。药剂被引发后所形成的高温环境,足以维持其中铝粉的后续快速燃烧反应,从而为增强爆炸冲击波提供帮助。     

Application of background oriented schlieren for quantitative measurements of shock waves from explosions

This paper describes application of a background oriented schlieren technique in order to obtain quantitative measurements of shock waves from explosions by processing high speed digital video recordings. The technique is illustrated by an analysis of two explosions, a high explosive test and a hydrogen gas explosion test. The visualization of the shock front is utilized to calculate the shock Mach number, leading to a predicted shock front pressure. For high explosives the method agreed quite well with a standard curve for side-on shock pressures. In the case of the gas explosion test we can also show that the shock front is non-spherical. It should be possible to develop this technique to investigate external blast waves and external explosions from vented gas explosions in more details. This paper is based on work that was presented at the 21th International Colloquium on the Dynamics of Explosions and Reactive Systems, Poitiers, France, July 23–27, 2007.