Comparison of the work-hardening of metallic sheets using tensile and shear strain paths

This work deals with the characterization of the kinematic work-hardening of a bake-hardening steel. A shear test device has been designed and its use for the characterization of the work-hardening of sheet metals is described. Two main results are presented. Firstly, a local strain measurement, based on the following of three dots drawn on the gauge area, gives the evolution of the strain tensor eigenvalues during the test. It is shown, by comparing the theoretical kinematics of simple shear with a slightly perturbated one, that the strain state is close to the ideal one in the center of the gauge area. Secondly, reversal of the shear direction is performed after several prestrain and the evolution of the kinematic work-hardening with the equivalent plastic strain has been identified using an anisotropic elasto-viscoplastic model of Hill 1948 type. Isotropic and kinematic contributions of the work-hardening are also calculated from loading–unloading tensile tests and are compared to those obtained from the simple shear tests. The results show a discrepancy between both identification for the isotropic and the kinematic hardening. However, they are in agreement concerning the evolution of the global work-hardening.     

界面凹坑上纵波－瑞利波转换的实验研究

应用超声技术对界面半球形凹坑上的纵波－瑞利波的波型转换进行了实验研究。在一个特制的钢质模型上，频率为ＩＭＨｚ的纵波从６个不同方向依次入射到３个不同直径的表面凹坑上，然后在８个不同的方向上接收瑞利波。所接收的散射信号被数字化后进行了ＦＦＴ运算。根据所得实验数据得知，当纵波垂直入射凹坑时所转换的瑞利波的总能量最大；当凹坑直径与入射波长相等时波型转换率最大等结论。其中一些结果为反卷积运算和已知数值计算所验证。     

Nondestructive evaluation of the carbon content in steel

The aim of this work is to propose an experimental method to evaluate the steel carbon content by ultrasound. The sample is immersed in a water tank in order to analyze it under various incidences of sound waves. Longitudinal wave velocities are measured by immersion by using a 5-MHz frequency probe. Transverse wave velocities are measured in a contact mode by using a 4-MHz transverse wave transducer. The attenuation coefficients of ultrasonic longitudinal and transverse waves are deduced from three successive basic echoes through the sample. The effects of some heat treatments on ultrasonic parameters are also studied. The measurement of ultrasonic parameters in steel offers an interesting possibility of tracing the carbon content and, at the same time, provides information on the steel structure and its elasticity.     

A device for measuring the velocity of ultrasonic waves: An application to stress analysis

In this paper we present a device for the practical application of an ultrasonic critical-angle refractometry (UCRfr) technique. UCRfr is a technique for measuring the velocity of longitudinal, shear and Rayleight waves, developed to improve the traditional ultrasonic methods for measuring the stress level in materials by means of acousto-elasticity. The technique consists of relating the variations in wave propagation velocity to variations in the angle of refraction at the interface with a second medium. Variations in the angle of refraction are determined on the basis of delay in receiving of the same wave at two different points. The study deals with the measurements of velocity changes of longitudinal wave due to uniaxial stress. In the present work the effects of stress on aluminum and steel specimens have been studied. Experimentation has show the potential of the technique for stress measurement; on the other hand, when the applied stress is known, it allows the measurement of the acoustoelastic constants of longitudinal waves. As regards measuring variations in velocity induced by stress, using this method it is possible, with a suitable choice of the material the device is made of, to isolate the effects of stress on velocity from the possible effects of temperature.     

Plastic surface strain mapping of bent sheets by image correlation

A technique using a single CCD camera, a precision rotation/translation stage, a telecentric zoom lens, and digital image correlation software is described for measuring surface profiles and surface plastic strain distributions of a bent thin sheet. The measurement principles, based on both parallel and pinhole perspective projections, are outlined and the relevant mathematical equations for computing the profiles and displacement fields on a curved surface are presented. The typical optical setup as well as the experimental measurement and digital image correlation analysis procedure are described. The maximum errors in the in-plane and out-of-plane coordinates or displacements are about ±5 and ±25 μm, respectively, and the maximum errors in surface strain mapping are about 0.1% or less based on a series of evaluation tests on flat and curved sample surfaces over a physical field of view of 15.2 × 11.4 mm². As an application example, the shape and surface plastic strain distribution example, the shape and surface plastic strain distributions around a bent apex of a flat 2 mm thick automotive aluminum AA5182-O sheet, which underwent a 90° bend with three bend ratios of 2t, 1t, and 0.6t, are determined using the proposed technique.     

Estimating the plastic strain with the use of acoustic anisotropy

Experimental verification is used to show that reference specimens and structure unloading do not permit obtaining an adequate estimate of plastic strain by measuring the acoustic anisotropy. Analytic estimates of the speed of propagation of a plane acoustic wave of various polarizations in an elastoplastic material in the direction orthogonal to the action of preliminary uniaxial stress are obtained. An analysis of the obtained relations reveala an advantage of using absolute values of the velocity of longitudinal and transverse waves for the plastic strain identification. In contrast to acoustic anisotropy, the velocities vary monotonically in a wider range of plastic strains. At the same time, the elastic strain does not affect the longitude wave velocity, which allows one to use the measurement results to estimate the character of strains.     

基于激光干涉测试技术的分离式Hopkinson压杆实验测试系统

分离式Hopkinson压杆（SHPB）实验的传统测试技术是基于应变片的电测技术,测试结果的可靠性强烈依赖于应变片与杆之间粘贴质量,受到人为因素的影响较大。本文中采用基于多普勒频移原理的双探头全光纤激光干涉测速技术,以粒子速度为监测目标,借助应力波传播理论,换算成试件的应变和应力,从而建立了SHPB实验的非接触光学测试系统。针对韧性和脆性两类材料,分别提出了激光正入射和激光斜入射两种测试技术。再以铝合金和PZT陶瓷为例,通过与传统的应变片测试结果以及DIC测量结果的对比分析,验证了两种测试技术的有效性。与传统的应变片测试技术相比,新的激光干涉测试技术具有免标定、抗干扰、可靠性高等许多优点,有助于实现SHPB实验测试系统标准化。     

New results for isotropic point scatterers: Foldy revisited

Since 1945, Foldy’s method has been used to predict velocity and attenuation for various types of scatterers. In this paper, it is shown that Foldy’s method also yields predictions of reflection and transmission of scalar waves by a random distribution of point or line scatterers contained in a slab. Results are given in two and three dimensions, and for normal and oblique incidences. Formulae are also obtained for the reflection and transmission of longitudinal waves by point or line scatterers distributed in an elastic (non-viscous) fluid. Energy equations are derived, and expressions are obtained for the energy dissipated in the slab on average over one period. Curves for the reflection and transmission coefficients are presented in the case of solid cylindrical bars immersed in a fluid. The results obtained in this paper are expected to be valid for a low density of scatterers. Potential applications of this work occur in ultrasonic evaluation of materials, seismic exploration and medical ultrasonics, where reflected (or backscattered) data are used to construct maps or images of the materials (metals, composites, earth subsurface, tissue). The formulae of this work are expected to provide useful tools for better and more efficient mapping or imaging.     

A Finite Element Analysis of a Tapered Flat Sheet Tensile Specimen

A uniaxial tension sheet metal coupon with a tapered instead of a straight gage section has been used for centering the location of diffuse neck and for measuring sheet stretchability in a non-uniform strain field. A finite element analysis of such a tensile coupon made of automotive steel sheet metals has been carried out to assess the effect of the tapered gage section geometry and material plastic strain hardening characteristics on the development of local plastic deformation pattern and local stress state, especially beyond the onset of diffuse necking but before localized necking. In particular, the finite element analysis was used in this study to evaluate the accuracy and reliability of an experimental data analysis method for estimating the post-necking effective plastic stress-strain curve based on the direct local surface axial plastic strain measurements for base metal, heat-affected zone, and weld metals of a dual-phase steel DP600. It is concluded that the estimated lower and upper bounds of the effective stress-strain curve at large strains are not satisfactory for low strain-hardening materials such as heat-affected zone and weld metals with the tapered tension coupons. A simple correction method utilizing only the additional local surface strain measurement in the transverse direction is proposed and it is shown to be effective in correcting the estimated effective stress-strain curve of dual-phase steel weld metals obtained for two tapered gage section geometries.     

Full-field and point strain measurement via the inner surface of a rolling large lug tyre

Vehicle safety and performance can be dramatically improved if force or friction measurement of the tyre-terrain interface is known. Since the tyre-terrain interface is responsible for the majority of forces acting on the vehicle, this region has received a lot of attention in vehicle dynamics. Direct measurement of the tyre-terrain interface is difficult since it is hidden by the tyre and terrain. A lot of research has been conducted on the inside of tyre using accelerometers or strain gauges with research more focussed on passenger car tyres and very little work performed on agricultural tyres with larger lugs. This study performs strain measurements using point measurement, from strain gauges, and full field measurement, using a stereo camera measurement system, of the inside of an agricultural tyre on a drum test rig during vertical and lateral loading. Results show similar trends when compared to results on passenger car tyres, however the mounting of the strain gauge relative to the lug is shown to play a large role in the developed strain. Linear relationships between the applied tyre force and strain were obtained in different direction with R² values above 0.97.     

基于超高速相机的数字图像相关性全场应变分析在SHTB实验中的应用

基于超高速相机和数字图像相关性全场应变分析方法对传统的分离式Hopkinson拉杆(SHTB)实验系统进行改进,获得尼龙和铝合金材料的动态拉伸应力应变曲线,验证了数字图像相关性全场应变分析在SHTB实验中的有效性。实验结果显示:该方法测量的平均应变与应变片测量结果一致性很好, 而传统的SHTB实验原理计算的应变结果则明显偏大,需要对试件原始标距进行修正后才能获得有效的试件应变,并且在试件的材料和几何尺寸不变的条件下标距修正不依赖于应变率。基于数字图像相关性全场应变测量,讨论了应变均匀性问题:脆性的尼龙试件在标距范围内应变均匀性良好,而韧性的铝合金试件表现出比较严重的应变不均匀性,归因于颈缩变形的影响。     

基于DIC技术的爆炸应力波过异质界面应变场演化规律实验研究

采用氯仿粘结聚碳酸酯（polycarbonate, PC）板和聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯（polymethylmethacrylate, PMMA）板模拟含异质界面模型;在PC介质中布置柱状炮孔并与界面呈一定角度,根据炮孔端部与界面相对位置,分别于柱状炮孔两个端部设置起爆点,起爆点远离界面端部时定义为孔口起爆,靠近界面端部时定义为孔底起爆;借助数字图像相关实验系统,研究爆炸应力波通过异质界面后PMMA介质应变场演化过程及炮孔底部区域拉、压应变变化规律。实验结果表明,异质界面改变了爆炸应力波过界面后的传播形态。孔口起爆时,异质界面受爆破荷载作用后易形成应力集中区,界面处产生开裂,横向拉伸波作用是造成异质界面开裂的主要原因。起爆方式对过界面后介质PMMA的横/纵向拉、压应变场作用贡献不同,主要体现在应变场强度、拉/压应变场位置分布2个方面。在炮孔底部区域,起爆方式对应变场时程特性的影响主要体现在作用时效长短和应变强度2个方面。孔口起爆时,横/纵向应变体现出短时效、高强度的变化特征。就应变强度而言,起爆方式对横向压应变的影响显著强于其对纵向拉应变的影响。对空间分布特性影响主要体现在衰减程度,起爆方式对纵向应变衰减程度影响较大。无论采用何种起爆方式,爆炸应变场在PC介质中衰减速度较快,进入PMMA介质后衰减速度显著降低。     

Measurement of stress based upon universal relations in acoustoelasticity

A new approach to ultrasonic measurement of stress was proposed recently by Man and Lu. That approach is based on universal relations that result from material symmetry in an acoustoelastic theory applicable to plastically deformed bodies for which superimposed ultrasonic waves can be taken as elastic. When applicable, the Man-Lu approach circumvents the two main difficulties of the acoustic-birefringence method, namely those of unknown initial texture and plastic deformation. An experiment was performed to verify a new universal relation derived by Man and Lu in their earlier work. Plastic strain was developed during the test. The results were in basic accord with the prediction of the theory.     

Dynamic strain measurement with the interferometric strain gage

The interferometric strain gage has a short gage length, high-frequency response and the capability of measuring large plastic strains. Furthermore, the gage is easily ruled directly onto the specimen, and no mechanical or electrical contact needs to be made during the measurement. These features make the interferometric strain gage particularly suitable for dynamic plastic-strain measurement. In this paper, the details of an experimental setup for generating and measuring dynamic plastic strain are given. The photometric techniques of measuring the fringe motion of the interference patterns are describle as well as the data-reduction procedure. A typical result is presented, and the validity of the method is established.     

Propagation of Thermo-Elastic Waves at Several Typical Interfaces Based on the Theory of Dipolar Gradient Elasticity

The reflection and transmission properties of thermo-elastic waves at five possible interfaces between two different strain gradient thermo-elastic solids are investigated based on the generalized thermo-elastic theory without energy dissipation(the GN theory). First, the function of free energy density is postulated and the constitutive relations are defined. Then,the temperature field and the displacement field are obtained from the motion equation in the form of displacement and the thermal transport equation without energy dissipation in the strain gradient thermo-elastic solid. Finally, the five types of thermo-elastic interfacial conditions are used to calculate the amplitude ratios of the reflection and transmission waves with respect to the incident wave. Further, the reflection and transmission coefficients in terms of energy flux ratio are calculated and the numerical results are validated by the energy conservation along the normal direction. It is found that there are five types of dispersive waves, namely the coupled longitudinal wave(the CP wave), the coupled thermal wave(the CT wave), the shear wave, and two evanescent waves(the coupled SP wave and SS wave), that become the surface waves at an interface. The mechanical interfacial conditions mainly influence the coupled CP waves, SV waves, and surface waves, while the thermal interfacial conditions mainly influence the coupled CT waves.     

Elastoplastic strain distribution around an oblique aperture in plates

Six steel plates containing an oblique hole with different inclination angles have been tested. The elastic-plastic response of these plates shows that high plastic strains occur inside the hole on the plane of symmetry. The maximum strain-concentration factor varies with the angle of obliquity of the hole generator and thickness-to-diameter ratio. The location of the maximum strain shifts inwards as the plastic deformation takes place. The results show that at a relatively low nominal-to-yield stress ratio, rather high plastic strains occur near the acute-angle side. In a certain case, the rate of increase of strain is such that unconstrained plastic flow takes place, causing large plastic deformations.     

接地网圆钢杆中高频纵向超声导波无损检测方法研究

针对接地网圆钢杆腐蚀检测问题,本文进行了接地网圆钢杆高频纵向超声导波无损检测方法研究。首先对埋地环境下圆钢杆中纵向导波传播特性进行理论研究,分析了不同模态导波的群速度和衰减频散特性。研究发现,高阶纵向模态导波在衰减最小和群速度最大对应的频率处,在圆钢杆中传播能力强,是适合进行地埋圆钢杆导波检测试验的频率范围。在此基础上,进行了埋地圆钢杆高频纵向超声导波无损检测试验研究。结果发现,利用优选的检测参数可以很好地实现埋地圆钢杆中腐蚀缺陷检测。研究工作为接地网运行状态评价提供了很好的技术支撑。     

Non-linear bell-shaped and kink-shaped strain waves in microstructured solids

The evolution of finite-amplitude strain waves is studied in a medium with microstructure when dissipation and energy input are taken into account. The governing non-linear equation for longitudinal strain waves is obtained in the one-dimensional case. The propagation and attenuation or amplification of bell-shaped and kink-shaped waves, whose parameters are defined in an explicit form through the parameters of the microstructured medium, are studied.     

Propagation of plane waves at the imperfect boundary of elastic and electro-microstretch generalized thermoelastic solids

The problem of reflection and transmission of plane waves incident on the contact surface of an elastic solid and an electro-microstretch generalized thermoelastic solid is discussed. It is found that there exist five reflected waves, i.e., longitudinal displacement （LD） wave, thermal （T） wave, longitudinal microstretch （LM） wave and two coupled transverse displacement and microrotational （CD（I） and CD（II）） waves in the electro-microstretch generalized thermoelastic solid, and two transmitted waves, i.e., longitudinal （P） and transverse （SV） waves in the elastic solid. The amplitude ratios of different reflected and transmitted waves are obtained for an imperfect boundary and deduced for normal force stiffness, transverse force stiffness, and perfect bonding. The variations of amplitude ratios with incidence angles have been depicted graphically for the LD wave and the CD（I） wave. It is noticed that the amplitude ratios of reflected and transmitted waves are affected by the stiffness, electric field, stretch, and thermal properties of the media. Some particular interest cases have been deduced from the present investigations.