聚氨酯(PU)在力学性能测试中的摩擦效应与变形均匀性研究

作为防弹玻璃夹层材料,PU的动态力学性能一直受到学者们的关注。为准确表征其动态力学性能,本文采用ABAQUS有限元软件对不同摩擦系数下的单轴压缩试验进行数值仿真,分析试样加载端面的摩擦效应和几何尺寸对单轴压缩试验结果的影响;结合高速摄影技术(HSP)与数字图像相关技术(DIC)观测到试样在拉伸试验中的动态变形场和应变场,探讨标距段的应力均衡性;同时对PU材料在不同应变率下的单轴压缩、拉伸力学性能进行测试。结果表明:压缩试样的端面摩擦效应限制横向变形,影响了试样内部的受力分布,使得测量得到的应力值偏大;试样长径比越小,端面摩擦效应的影响越大;在单轴动态拉伸试验中,板状拉伸试样的标距段选取应当考虑两端倒角尺寸。通过测试PU的拉、压力学性能,发现材料具有显著的应变率敏感性。     

材料超高温动态拉伸SHTB实验方法的有效性分析

针对高温拉伸分离式Hopkinson杆实验技术,通过数值模拟、实验验证以及几种典型材料的高温动态拉伸性能测试相结合的方法,对此实验技术中存在的几个关键问题进行了深入研究。结果表明:对于平板状钩挂式拉伸试样,通过标距段尺寸优化后,应力分布均匀,流动应力曲线与螺纹拉伸试样一致,且应力上升段后没有剧烈跳动;通过精确气动控制,在加载脉冲到来同时,可实现有效的试样快速同步组装和加载;当试样温度为1 200 ℃时,在冷加载杆与高温试样接触以及应力波加载试样的整个过程中,试样平均温度下降约1.3%,而加载杆端温升低于180 ℃。为了验证此实验技术,对3D打印TC4、镍基单晶高温合金DD6进行了最高温度约1 200 ℃时的高温动态拉伸力学性能实验测试。     

基于平台圆环试样的无机玻璃动态拉伸性能研究

无机玻璃的拉伸强度往往远小于压缩强度，服役过程中玻璃大多会发生拉伸断裂.论文采用平台圆环(flattened circular ring, FCR)试样测试钠钙硅酸盐玻璃的拉伸性能.分别利用电子万能试验机和电磁分离式Hopkinson压杆(electromagnetic split Hopkinson pressure bar, ESHPB)开展准静态、动态单轴单向和单轴双向实验，加载过程中采用高速相机对试样的破坏过程进行观测.结果显示，该材料试样强度具有明显的正加载速率相关性.动态单轴双向加载可比单向加载更快实现应力平衡，但两种应力波加载方式下试样的动态拉伸强度大致相同.高速摄像与动态加载同步分析表明，这是因为试样的裂纹产生时刻与应力峰值时刻几乎同时产生.对三种形式的拉伸实验结果进行对比，发现拉伸强度受试样形状影响，这与试样断裂路径上的拉伸应力分布有关.     

填充橡胶温度依赖的非弹性力学行为实验研究

填充橡胶具有复杂的非弹性力学行为，主要包括应变率依赖的粘弹性效应和变形历史依赖的Mullins效应。当前大多数对填充橡胶的实验研究集中于室温条件，针对以上问题，本文通过单轴压缩实验系统地研究了温度对氟橡胶粘弹性和Mullins效应这两种非弹性行为的影响。首先采用多次循环加载获得了完全消除了Mullins效应的预处理试样。通过对原试样和预处理试样的单轴加卸载实验应力响应进行对比，发现Mullins效应不受变形温度和应变率的影响。通过对消除Mullins效应橡胶材料应力松弛实验结果分析，发现粘弹性行为不仅与变形的温度、应变率相关，还受加载应变的影响，表现为较大的加载应变会抑制氟橡胶的应力松弛。     

基于Hopkinson压杆的M型试样动态拉伸实验方法研究

采用传统分离式Hopkinson压杆进行M型试样的动态拉伸实验，可避免试样与杆的连接问题，但该方法并未得到发展和验证。本文中，采用有限元数值分析和实验方法，对M型试样动态拉伸实验进行分析和改进。结果表明:（1）改进的封闭M型试样，可以增强试样整体刚度，有效减少试样畸变引起的附加弯矩对拉伸标段的影响，方便通过Hopkinson压杆加载实现一维拉伸变形；（2）采用试样刚度系数修正法，可消除M型试样整体结构的弹性变形对测试的影响，精确获得试样拉伸标段的塑性应变；（3）高加载率下，建议采用波形整器加载，可显著减少试样结构引起的载荷震荡现象、改善两端的应力平衡，获得准确的动态拉伸应力应变曲线，实现5 900 s?1甚至更高应变率下的动态拉伸实验。研究方法可为M型试样拉伸实验设计和应用提供参考。     

显式模拟类橡胶材料Mullins效应滞回圈

通过显式、直接的方法提出一个多轴可压缩应变能函数,用来模拟类橡胶材料在加载-卸载作用下,由于Mullins效应而产生的应力-应变滞回圈.本文的创新点在于将表征能量耗散的变量引入到应变能函数.新的弹性势具有以下两个特点:第一,在加载情况下,新引入的变量不会对弹性势产生任何影响,因此,只要给出合适的形函数显式表达,3个基准实验,包括单轴拉伸和压缩,等双轴拉伸和压缩,以及平面应变,都可精确模拟;第二,新引入的变量在卸载情况下将被激活.在不同的卸载应力下,变量将发生改变,从而影响弹性势,使其最终产生不同的应力-应变关系卸载曲线,与对应的加载曲线共同构成应力-应变滞回圈.通过对Mullins效应实验数据进行分析和研究,得出了卸载形函数在不同卸载应力下变化的规律,并预测不同卸载应力下的应力-应变关系.最后,我们将得到精确匹配实验数据的数值模拟结果,从而证明本文方法不仅可以精确匹配至少3个基准实验,还可以模拟和预测类橡胶材料在加载-卸载作用下由于Mullins效应而产生的滞回圈.     

高应变率拉伸加载下无氧铜的本构模型

为了研究材料在高应变率拉伸加载下的动态响应,利用新型爆炸膨胀环实验技术开展了无氧铜试 样环的拉伸加载实验,采用激光干涉测试技术获得了试样环拉伸变形过程的径向速度历史。数值计算发现经 典JC模型不能较好地描述无氧铜试样环的膨胀过程,于是对JC模型进行了修改:增加了应变的指数硬化项 来描述拉伸变形的累积效应;增加了应变率的线性项描述拉伸加载时的应变率效应;利用实验数据拟合了修 改后的RJC模型参数,最终较好描述了无氧铜试样环的膨胀变形过程。     

Hopkinson拉杆的入射波波形整形实验研究

目前,分离式Hopkinson杆实验技术已经被广泛用于测试材料在10~2~10~4s~(-1)应变率范围内的动态力学特性。为了抑制入射波的高频振荡,实现恒定应变率加载,本文利用分离式Hopkinson拉杆(SHTB)实验装置,研究了加载金属短杆(2A12T4铝合金)及整形垫片(纸板、PVC软塑料及带磁性胶皮)对入射波波形的影响。实验结果表明,整形垫片降低了入射应力脉冲的高频振荡,获得了比较平滑的入射应力脉冲,延长了上升时间。同时,利用所得的波形整形结果,对2A12T4铝合金进行了拉伸应力波脉冲加载的拉伸和断裂实验测试。     

显式模拟类橡胶材料Mullins效应滞回圈

通过显式、直接的方法提出一个多轴可压缩应变能函数,用来模拟类橡胶材料在加载——卸载作用下,由于Mullins效应而产生的应力——应变滞回圈. 本文的创新点在于将表征能量耗散的变量引入到应变能函数.新的弹性势具有以下两个特点:第一,在加载情况下,新引入的变量不会对弹性势产生任何影响,因此,只要给出合适的形函数显式表达,3个基准实验,包括单轴拉伸和压缩,等双轴拉伸和压缩,以及平面应变,都可精确模拟;第二,新引入的变量在卸载情况下将被激活.在不同的卸载应力下,变量将发生改变,从而影响弹性势,使其最终产生不同的应力——应变关系卸载曲线,与对应的加载曲线共同构成应力——应变滞回圈.通过对Mullins效应实验数据进行分析和研究,得出了卸载形函数在不同卸载应力下变化的规律,并预测不同卸载应力下的应力——应变关系.最后,我们将得到精确匹配实验数据的数值模拟结果,从而证明本文方法不仅可以精确匹配至少3个基准实验,还可以模拟和预测类橡胶材料在加载——卸载作用下由于Mullins效应而产生的滞回圈.      

基于三维DIC方法的高强钢拉伸力学性能测定

高强度钢在建筑等工程领域发挥着极为重要的作用,因此准确测定其力学性能具有至关重要的意义．鉴于传统机械引伸计在小尺寸试样变形测试中的不便性,利用三维数字图像相关(3D-DIC)方法,对8.8级螺栓和Q690钢这两类试样在单轴拉伸试验全过程中的变形进行了测试,分别得到了应力-应变曲线、弹性模量、屈服强度、强度极限、断后延伸率和断面收缩率,由于试样在屈服阶段应变增加而应力基本不变,因此同时研究了该阶段中试样从弹性变形演化到塑性变形的发展规律．实验结果表明三维DIC在小尺寸试样力学性能测试方面具有很强的优越性,可用来灵活地测量变形并研究变形的演化规律．     

A new direct biaxial testing machine for anisotropic materials

A screw-driven new biaxial testing machine for the realization of experimental investigations on anisotropic sheet materials, such as composite plates or rolled sheet metals, is presented. The described mechanical concept and servocontrol system allow cruciform specimens to be subjected to large strain biaxial tensile and compressive tests without kinematic incompatibilities. Moreover, for the proper implementation of biaxial tensile tests, the specific problems linked to the anisotropic properties of the investigated materials are taken into account; therefore, for the first time, the biaxial machine is supplied with the original ‘off-axes testing device,’ consisting of hinged fixtures with knife-edges at each arm of the cruciform specimen. A recently developed optimization method for the optimal design of flat tensile cruciform specimens is shortly reviewed. Numerical simulations illustrate the decisive superiority of the optimized specimen compared with specimen designs proposed in the literature, as well as the necessity to use the ‘off-axes’ testing technique in biaxial tests on anisotropic materials.     

Cyclic stress-strain data analysis under biaxial tensile stress state

A new device was developed to assess fatigue life under biaxial tensile loading at elevated temperatures. It makes use of an annular disk specimen and can be easily mounted onto a standard push-pull machine so that the axial force is converted into radial forces extending across the disk specimen. Therefore, a positive ratio of the tangential to the radial stress can be imposed at the reduced section of the disk specimen; this ratio depends on the specimen configuration and may be fixed to a value ranging from 0.5 to 0.9 by varying the inner diameter of the disk. The proposed device has performed successfully and was used to study the cyclic behavior of Type-304 stainless steel subjected to various biaxial tensile stress states at room temperature and at 200°C. The data obtained from this experimental procedure have been analyzed to evaluate the effectiveness of some correlations already available for treating the biaxial cyclic stress-strain response in terms of the uniaxial behavior. This analysis shows that a successful correlation should account for all the stress components. The authors discuss the concept used in the modeling of the material cyclic behavior and the formulation of a biaxial fatigue damage parameter necessary for an effective analytical life prediction methodology.     

Low-cycle fatigue of 7075-T651 aluminum alloy in biaxial bending

The uniaxial and biaxial low-cycle-fatigue life of 7075-T651 aluminum alloy in completely reversed bending is investigated. Uniaxial data is obtained from a cantilever specimen, and round and elliptical simply supported plate specimens are used for nominal strain biaxialities of 1∶1, 1∶075 and 1∶0.50 in the plane of the specimen. Experimental data is correlated on the basis of the total octahedral shearing strain range in which the dependent component strains are calculated using the “effective value” of Poisson's ratio for elastic-plastic loading. Good agreement is obtained oetween the uniaxial and biaxial data when the total octahedral shearing-strain range is plotted against the number of cycles to failure in logarithmic coordinates. Also, it is shown that, in anisotropic materials, the directional uniaxial and biaxial low-cycle properties can be predicted from fatigue properties in any one direction if the anisotropy of fracture ductility is known.     

Determination of Yield Surfaces in Accordance With ISO 16842 Using an Optimized Cruciform Test Specimen

Background: For the standard ISO 16842 cruciform test specimen, stresses obtained from the gauge area are far below the ultimate tensile strength due to high stress concentrations at the slit ends which lead to premature failure. Objective: To introduce a new cruciform specimen design which has been optimized with respect to the determination of yield surfaces. Methods: The proposed design differs from the ISO standard by an additional thinning of the gauge area and wider slits in the arms to avoid stress singularities. Compared to other cruciform test piece designs found in the literature, the stress distribution is still homogeneous and there is no need to reduce the size of the gauge area, thanks to the specimen’s well-balanced proportions. Results: Biaxial tensile tests have been conducted with aluminium 5754 alloy samples of different thicknesses. For the standard cruciform test piece, the maximum strain achieved at the gauge area is only 25% of the fracture strain. The optimized cruciform test piece can attain about 66% of the fracture strain before breaking. Conclusions: The optimized specimen design enables the measurement of yield surfaces at higher stress levels. In case of other materials such as elastomers, the slit length has be to adjusted accordingly.

     

A Device for Biaxial Testing in Uniaxial Machines. Design,Manufacturing and Experimental Results Using Cruciform Specimens of Composite Materials

The present study deals with the design and manufacturing of a mechanical device to perform biaxial testing in universal (uniaxial) testing machines. A review of previous definitions of similar devices is carried out and a new device is conceived and developed. The main improvement with the present device is that it allows different types of biaxial loadings (tension-compression) to be performed with few manipulations. The device allows variable displacement ratio to be used in each loading direction, giving then rise to variable loading ratios. Biaxial tension-tension tests on cruciform specimens made of composite material were carried out using very brittle samples in which the fibre direction was perpendicular to the loading plane. Strain gages were used to monitor the percentage bending parameter so that the correct alignment of the loading could be checked. Values below 5% for the bending parameter were achieved at the moment of failure.     

Influence of strain rate on mechanical properties of 6061-T6 aluminum under uniaxial and biaxial states of stress

A technique is presented for determining mechanical properties of materials under dynamic tensile loads. A Dynapak metalworking machine was modified into a test fixture capable of producing the required dynamic loads for uniaxial and certain biaxial tensile tests. Results from uniaxial dynamic tests on 6061-T6 aluminum alloy are presented and compared to “static” data obtained from a universal testing machine. The dependence of tensile strength on strain rate and the augmenting effect of temperature on this dependence can be seen. The results of biaxial tests are described in terms of a modified form of the distortion-energy failure theory.     

基于超高速相机的数字图像相关性全场应变分析在SHTB实验中的应用

基于超高速相机和数字图像相关性全场应变分析方法对传统的分离式Hopkinson拉杆(SHTB)实验系统进行改进,获得尼龙和铝合金材料的动态拉伸应力应变曲线,验证了数字图像相关性全场应变分析在SHTB实验中的有效性。实验结果显示:该方法测量的平均应变与应变片测量结果一致性很好, 而传统的SHTB实验原理计算的应变结果则明显偏大,需要对试件原始标距进行修正后才能获得有效的试件应变,并且在试件的材料和几何尺寸不变的条件下标距修正不依赖于应变率。基于数字图像相关性全场应变测量,讨论了应变均匀性问题:脆性的尼龙试件在标距范围内应变均匀性良好,而韧性的铝合金试件表现出比较严重的应变不均匀性,归因于颈缩变形的影响。     

1Cr18Ni9Ti不锈钢的非比例循环强化性能

对1Cr18Ni9Ti不锈钢进行了各种比例和非比例循环本构实验,其中包括圆路径、正方形、正菱形、蝶形、三角形和两种十字形应变路径。表明其具有明显的非比例循环附加强化。在相同的等效应变幅值上,材料的附加强化与路径密切相关。对于圆路径,其附加强化度最大可达60％。通过对不同应变历史的实验研究表明,先前小的非比例度的加载历史对后继大的非比例度路径的强化没有影响;而先前大非比例度的加载路径对后继小非比例度路径的循环强化有较大影响。     

Hardening of a rolled sheet submitted to radial and complex biaxial tensile loadings

Biaxial tensile tests are performed on cruciform specimens with the help of direct biaxial testing machine. Small offset-strain yield curves are detected on an aluminium alloy (AL1200) rolled sheet submitted to irreversible radial and complex biaxial tensile loadings. A predominant kinematic hardening and an important isotropic expansion are observed. A yield curve distortion is observed as well but, unlike the traction–torsion case, its intensity appears to be linked to the loading type. Moreover, the strain responses are analyzed in order to point out the pronounced anisotropy of the rolled sheet and to check if the sheet behavior is in agreement with a plastic flow associated with the yield curve.     

Plane-stress fracture testing of finite sheets under biaxial loads

A procedure which combines the Williams series-type stress- and displacement-field expressions at the crack-tip neighborhood with a suitable numerical scheme away from the crack-tip was employed in the determination of the plane-stress fracture properties of four finite 7076-T6 aluminum sheets containing cracks emanating from a circular hole under four biaxial loads. The compatibility of the analytical and numerical displacements at the nodal points along the boundary of the crack-tip neighborhood was utilized in formulating displacement-continuity expressions containing some undetermined constants which solution depends on the nature of the boundary loading conditions. By linear superposition of the displacement due to remote uniaxial load and the displacements due to remotely applied transverse load in the neighborhood of the crack-tip, biaxial-displacement-continuity expressions containing these important fracture properties—namely, the opening Mode I stress-intensity factorK, the nonsingular stress term associated with the stresses in the direction parallel to the plane of cracksA and the integration termB associated with the displacement in this direction—were evaluated. Because no known biaxial testing of this geometry had been reported prior to this research, the analytical procedure was used to select the optimum geometry required in a biaxial fracture test of a finite-sheet specimen containing cracks emanating from a circular hole. This geometric optimization of the specimen guaranteed uniformity of stress all over the volume of specimen and also made the alteration of the existing MTS test fixtures unnecessary. Four square sheets of 7075-T6 aluminum alloy containing a central hole with two collinear cracks emanating radially at the edge of the hole were then fabricated in accordance with the analytically determined geometric requirements. The biaxial fracture test was then conducted under four biaxial load factors (λ) of 0.0, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5. The fracture toughness obtained in this research was compared with those reported for uniaxial loading of large panels. It was found that there is a good correlation between the reported fracture toughness and this work.