Hobson文科物理教材选载⑥——核武器

译者说明:这次选登的是原书讨论核武器的几节,摘自原书的第16章.这一章介绍核能和释放核能的两种方法:聚变和裂变.它从聚变开始,第16.1节介绍氢的聚变,它是太阳辐射能的来源.第16.2节介绍核能曲线,在这条曲线上,核子的平均核能两头高,中间(在铁附近)低,这使核能在原则上能够通过裂变和聚变两种方法释放.     

核能存储及释放的新机制

 1938年,德国科学家奥托·哈恩等人发现铀裂变现象1939年8月2日,爱因斯坦在写给美国总统罗斯福的信中指出铀裂变可能导致新型重要能源的产生和武器的建造,由此导致了1942年美国研制原子弹的“曼哈顿”计划和1945年7月16日在美国新墨西哥州的沙漠里进行的世界上第一颗原子弹试验,从而使得核能成为可供利用的主要能源之一。通常所说的核能包括原子核的裂变能和聚变能。裂变能是重原子核通过裂变而释放的能量而聚变能是由两个轻原子核聚合成一个较重核而释放能量。除了核武器外,裂变能主要用于发电,目前世界的核电已达总电量的16%。     

具有“特定功能”的第三代核武器

 1945年8月6日和9日,美国在日本的广岛和长崎投下了两颗原子弹,宣告了核武器的问世,即产生了第一代核武器--原子弹.原子弹是利用铀-235,或钚-239等重原子核的链式裂变原理制成的核武器.     

基于SMES的超导电力集成研究超导限流贮能系统

本文探讨了基于SMES的超导电力集成的基本概念，分析了集成设计的基本原理．提出了一个基于SMES的超导电力集成应用实例：一种用于配电系统变电站应用的桥路型超导限流贮能系统（SFCL-MES），它既可以限制故障电流峰值和稳态值，也可以同时补偿系统电压，保证系统供电质量．讨论它的结构和集成原理，仿真试验验证了它的有效性．     

我国核能的现状和前景

国民经济的发展及人口的增长，使我国对能源的需求与日俱增．本文从资源、技术、经济及环境影响出发，论述了我国煤、石油、天然气、水能、太阳能、风能和核能的发展现状和前景，认为开发核能是解决我国能源、环境和交通问题的根本出路． 当前，压水堆是我国核电的主要堆型．在目前及今后一段时期，核电是我国利用核能的主要方向．到下世纪，能增殖核燃料的快堆将成为我国的主要堆型．我国的快堆开发，要走金属型核燃料快堆的道路．快堆使人类有充裕的时间，去迎接聚变堆时代的到来．     

物理学家与二战期间原子弹的研制

物理学家与二战期间原子弹的研制秦希锋，张世忠（山东省机械工业学校济南２５００１３）原子弹是２０世纪的重大科技成果，５０年前在阿拉莫戈多试验场升起的第一朵蘑菇云是人类进入核能时代的标志．这一重大科技成果凝集了无数物理学家的辛勤劳动和集体智慧，在它研制过...     

美国SDI的进展和一些关键技术

本文介绍自１９８３年开始以后美国ＳＤＩ的演变，简单介绍所取得的进展．特别介绍一些关键技术，包括：动能武器，定向能武器，对抗和反对抗措施．动能武器着重介绍拦截弹、它的制导方法和最新的天基拦截弹“智能卵石”．在本世纪内它们是唯一能部署的．定向能武器着重介绍自由电子激光器和试验激光武器的两颗卫星．对于对抗和反对抗措施只略作介绍，因为公开争议尚激烈．     

概率论与量子力学

量子力学和相对论一样，是本世纪初为了适应现代物理学新发展形势的需要，克服了经典物理学在理论和实践中不能解决的一些困难而产生出来的科学理论．几十年来在科学实践的广泛领域里，取得了富有成效的应用成果．但是，关于它的基本原理的物理和哲学的解释，一直存在着两种思想、两种世界观的激烈斗争，这种斗争对完善、改革和发展这门科学理论具有重要的意义． 这里刊登了两篇关于量子力学的文章：《论量子力学的公理基础》一文，对量子力学基本原理的物理意义作了简明的、具有代表性的解释；《概率论与量子力学》一文，则对量子力学的基本原理和它的体系提出了不同的看法．欢迎大家对这一问题进行讨论．讨论的目的在于，站在无产阶级的立场，使马克思主义占领这一科学理论阵地，促使它更加完善，沿着正确的道路向前发展；改造它成为我国广大工农兵群众能够掌握和利用的科学武器，为我国的社会主义革命和建设事业服务，为巩固和加强无产阶级专政服务．     

脉冲散裂中子源

一、中子与物质相互作用的特点及 中子源的发展 自从1932年英国人查德威克发现中子以来,中子的应用已经有了很大的发展,其中两大应用已为世人所熟知,一个就是作为战争工具的大规模杀人武器——原子弹、氢弹等核武器,另一个是用于造福于人类的原子能发电站(即核电站).中子的另一     

广岛长崎原子弹爆炸的回顾与反思

 1945年8月6日,美国一架B-29战略轰炸机在日本广岛上空投下了第一颗原子弹,8月9日又在长崎投下第二颗原子弹,至今已整整60年了。原子弹的使用尽管迫使日本于1945年8月15日宣布无条件投降,结束了第二次世界大战。但是并未为人类赢得永久的和平,相反地却把世界带进了原子战争的时代,笼罩在广岛长崎上空的原子弹烟云,绵延到整个世界,核武器从此开始威胁全人类。一、原子弹的物理基础原子弹是利用原子核裂变反应瞬时释放巨大能量的核武器。其基本原理是:铀235、钚239等重核在中子轰击下发生裂变反应,这一过程同时放出2～3个中子和200MeV的能量（相当于3.2×10¹¹焦耳）。     

以中子作外源的假想核弹头主动探测

通过对不同入射能量的中子在假想的核弹头中的输运计算,分析了弹头中的裂变材料芯部的核裂变、各层对中子的吸收和(n,xn)反应以及出壳中子随角度的变化,论证了以外中子源(不随时间变化的外源)对弹头作主动探测的可行性.通过对14 1MeV脉冲中子源和产生的缓发中子在模型中的输运计算,分析了用脉冲外中子源产生的缓发中子探测核弹头的可行性.     

中子弹与中子弹中的物理学

简述了美国研制中子弹的历史背景，中子弹的简要发展史，详细阐释了中子弹的两个重要特性；强辐射与低爆炸威力，并与普通裂变弹作了对比，在分析中子弹特性的基础上，讲述了中子弹的物理原理，即中子弹是一种以氘氚聚变反应释放的高能中子为主杀务因素的特殊设计的低威力氢弹，最后，文章阐述了中子弹的功用与局限以及中子弹的防御措施。     

原子核对称能对中子星壳层结构的影响

中子星内壳层中存在原子核、中子、电子等非均匀分布的物质。在Wigner-Seitz近似下,共存相方法和自洽Thomas-Fermi近似方法是描述这种非均匀物质的有效方法。中子在非均匀物质所占的比例远远大于其他组分,因此原子核的对称能对非均匀物质的性质会产生十分重要的影响,而原子核对称能的密度依赖关系在核物质饱和密度附近有较大的不确定性。采用相对论平均场理论描述核子间相互作用,研究原子核对称能对中子星内壳层的密度范围、pasta相结构、壳核相变密度等性质的影响,探寻其中可能存在的关联。计算结果表明,原子核对称能及其密度依赖性在决定中子星内壳层非均匀物质的性质中起着重要作用,这与之前相关研究中得到的结论基本相符。Within Wigner-Seitz approximation, both the coexisting phases method and the self-consistent Thomas-Fermi approximation can be used to describe the nonuniform matter consisting of nuclei, neutrons, and electrons, which may coexist in the inner crust of neutron star. Since the neutron fraction is very large, nuclear symmetry energy may have an important impact on the properties of nonuniform matter. However, the density dependence of nuclear symmetry energy around saturation density is still rather uncertain. This paper focuses on the influence of nuclear symmetry energy on the density range of inner crust, pasta phase structure, and crust-core transition density of neutron star, where the relativistic mean field theory is adopted to describe the nucleon-nucleon interaction. It is turned out that the nuclear symmetry energy and its density dependence play an import role in determining the properties of nonuniform matter in the inner crust of neutron star, which is consistent with the former related studies.     

Constraints on the symmetry energy using the mass-radius relation of neutron stars

The nuclear symmetry energy is intimately connected with nuclear astrophysics. This contribution focuses on the estimation of the symmetry energy from experiment and how it is related to the structure of neutron stars. The most important connection is between the radii of neutron stars and the pressure of neutron star matter in the vicinity of the nuclear saturation density n_s. This pressure is essentially controlled by the nuclear symmetry energy parameters S_v and L , the first two coefficients of a Taylor expansion of the symmetry energy around n_s. We discuss constraints on these parameters that can be found from nuclear experiments. We demonstrate that these constraints are largely model-independent by deriving them qualitatively from a simple nuclear model. We also summarize how recent theoretical studies of pure neutron matter can reinforce these constraints. To date, several different astrophysical measurements of neutron star radii have been attempted. Attention is focused on photospheric radius expansion bursts and on thermal emissions from quiescent low-mass X-ray binaries. While none of these observations can, at the present time, determine individual neutron star radii to better than 20% accuracy, the body of observations can be used with Bayesian techniques to effectively constrain them to higher precision. These techniques invert the structure equations and obtain estimates of the pressure-density relation of neutron star matter, not only near n_s, but up to the highest densities found in neutron star interiors. The estimates we derive for neutron star radii are in concordance with predictions from nuclear experiment and theory.     

Nucleon Finite Volume Effect and Nuclear Matter Properties in a Relativistic Mean-Field Theory

Effects of excluded volume of nucleons on nuclear matter are studied, and the nuclear properties that follow from different relativistic mean-field model parametrizations are compared. We show that, for all tested parametrizations, the resulting volume energy al and the symmetry energy J are around the acceptable values of 16 MeV and 30 MeV, and the density symmetry L is around 100 MeV. On the other hand, models that consider only linear terms lead to incompressibility Ko much higher than expected. For most parameter sets there exists a critical point （pc, δc）, where the minimum and the maximum of the equation of state are coincident and the incompressibility equals zero. This critical point depends on the excluded volume parameter r. If this parameter is larger than 0.5 fm, there is no critical point and the pure neutron matter is predicted to be bound. The maximum value for neutron star mass is 1.85M⊙, which is in agreement with the mass of the heaviest observed neutron star 4U0900-40 and corresponds to r = 0.72 fm. We also show that the light neutron star mass （1.2M⊙） is obtained for r ≌ 0.9 fro.     

利用非对称核物质状态方程对中子星的质量和半径的研究

在温度、密度及同位旋相关的核物质状态方程的基础上,通过求解Tol-man-Oppenheimer?Volkoff方程得到了中子星的质量与中心密度的关系,发现随着中心密度的变化,中子星存在一个最大质量.同时计算结果表明,中子星的最大质量与核物质状态方程的不可压缩系数、有效质量及对称能强度系数等密切相关.对中子星半径的研究表明,较硬的核物质状态方程给出的中子星半径较大,而且较大的对称能强度系数和较大的核子有效质量也会给出较大的中子星半径.     

利用GEANT4和TALYS研究中子与铁作用的次级中子双微分截面

铁的次级中子双微分截面对核装置的设计、运行与维护具有重要作用。相关实验数据缺乏,且评价数据不完善,需要使用可靠的核理论模型进行计算。本工作利用GEANT4程序结合不同的中子评价数据计算了8.17, 11.5, 14.1和18 MeV等入射能量下中子轰击薄铁靶不同出射角度的次级中子双微分截面;同时利用TALYS程序和GEANT4程序结合BIC、BERT和INCLXX模型计算了25.7, 65, 100和150 MeV等入射能量下中子轰击薄铁靶不同出射角度的次级中子双微分截面,并与实验数据进行对比。研究表明,在20 MeV以下能区,ENDF/B-VIII.0库的计算结果与实验数据符合较好,BROND-3.1、CENDL-3.1、JENDL-4.0u和JEFF-3.3库的计算结果与实验数据存在差异。在20~150 MeV能区,GEANT4程序的BERT模型和TALYS程序的计算结果与实验数据符合较好,INCLXX模型和BIC模型的计算结果与实验数据存在分歧。整体来看,需要对铁的中子评价数据和核反应理论模型做进一步研究。     

先进核能系统结构材料辐照性能研究

首先简要介绍第一代到先进的第四代核能系统的发展、与核能系统发展密切的抗辐照结构材料研发进展、第四代核能系统结构材料辐照性能研究新方法。第四代核能系统发展中,辐照引起材料性能退化是一个需要研究和解决的瓶颈问题。现有中子源都不能满足第四代核能系统结构材料高剂量中子辐照性能研究的要求。为此,发展了用于核能系统结构材料高剂量辐照性能快速检测加速器重离子辐照方法和第四代核能系统实际辐照工况模拟的重离子与氢和氦三束同时辐照新方法,文中进行了详细的介绍。最后介绍了中国原子能科学研究院核能系统结构材料辐照性能研究现状和近期发展计划。该院在HI-13串列加速器器上建立了多种不同用途的重离子辐照装置、三个独立加速器构成的重离子与氢和氦三束同时辐照实验平台,开展了一系列核能结构材料,例如国产改进型奥氏体钢、CLAM钢、1515钢、钽、钨等的辐照性能的系统测试和研究。为了更好地开展核能结构材料性能研究,从国外引进了一台超导直线加速器和一台可变能量重离子回旋加速器。结合现有2×13 MeV,2×1.7 MV串列加速器、30 MeV和100 MeV质子回旋加速器、高压倍加器,中国实验快堆、中国先进研究堆、微堆等,CIAE将建成一个比较完整和先进的核能系统结构材料辐照实验平台系统供国内外用户使用。This paper introduces briefly the development of nuclear energy systems from the GEN I to the advanced GEN IV, the progress of manufacturing radiation resistant materials associated with the development of nuclear energy systems and the new methods of investigating radiation properties of the structural materials for the GEN IV nuclear energy systems at first. Irradiation induced deterioration of materials properties is a bottle neck problem, which must be investigated and solved for the development of the GEN IV nuclear energy systems. Unfortunately, all the currently available neutron sources cannot meet the requirements of investigating radiation properties of structural materials irradiated by high dose neutron irradiation in the GEN IV nuclear energy systems. Therefore, two new methods of the accelerator heavy ion irradiation that simulates the high-dose neutron irradiation and the triple beam irradiation that mimics the real neutron irradiation environment in the GEN IV nuclear energy systems have been developed. These two methods are introduced in this paper. The present status of the study on radiation properties of structural materials for nuclear energy systems of the new generation and the near future development plan at China Institute of Atomic Energy (CIAE) are described also. The accelerator heavy ion irradiation facilities for different applications and the simultaneous triple beam irradiation platform with three separate accelerators or implanters have been established at the HI-13 tandem accelerator of CIAE. A series of structural materials for nuclear energy systems, such as the home-made modified austenic steel, CLAM steel, 1515 steel, Tantalum, Tungsten, etc. have been tested and investigated systematically. A superconducting linear accelerator and a variable energy heavy ion cyclotron have been imported from abroad for a better performance of the study. Combined with the currently existing facilities of 2×13 MeV and 2×1.7 MV tandem accelerators, 30 and 100 MeV proton cyclotrons, China experimental fast reactor, China advance research reactor, Miniature neutron source reactor, etc. a comprehensive and advanced system of experimental irradiation platform for structural materials of nuclear energy systems will be established in the near future for both domestic and foreign users.     

Properties of nuclear pastas

In this review we study the nuclear pastas as they are expected to be formed in neutron star crusts. We start with a study of the pastas formed in nuclear matter (composed of protons and neutrons), we follow with the role of the electron gas on the formation of pastas, and we then investigate the pastas in neutron star matter (nuclear matter embedded in an electron gas).Nuclear matter (NM) at intermediate temperatures (1 MeV ≲ T ≲ 15 MeV), at saturation and sub-saturation densities, and with proton content ranging from 30% to 50% was found to have liquid, gaseous and liquid–gas mixed phases. The isospin-dependent phase diagram was obtained along with the critical points, and the symmetry energy was calculated and compared to experimental data and other theories. At low temperatures (T ≲ 1 MeV) NM produces crystal-like structures around saturation densities, and pasta-like structures at sub-saturation densities. Properties of the pasta structures were studied with cluster-recognition algorithms, caloric curve, the radial distribution function, the Lindemann coefficient, Kolmogorov statistics, Minkowski functionals; the symmetry energy of the pasta showed a connection with its morphology.Neutron star matter (NSM) is nuclear matter embedded in an electron gas. The electron gas is included in the calculation by the inclusion of an screened Coulomb potential. To connect the NM pastas with those in neutron star matter (NSM), the role the strength and screening length of the Coulomb interaction have on the formation of the pastas in NM was investigated. Pasta was found to exist even without the presence of the electron gas, but the effect of the Coulomb interaction is to form more defined pasta structures, among other effects. Likewise, it was determined that there is a minimal screening length for the developed structures to be independent of the cell size.Neutron star matter was found to have similar phases as NM, phase transitions, symmetry energy, structure function and thermal conductivity. Like in NM, pasta forms at around T ≈ 1.5 MeV, and liquid-to-solid phase changes were detected at T ≈ 0.5 MeV. The structure function and the symmetry energy were also found to depend on the pasta structures.     

Extraction of Nuclear Matter Properties from Nuclear Masses by a Model of Equation of State

The extraction of nuclear matter properties from measured nuclear masses is investigated in the energy density functional formalism of nuclei.It is shown that the volume energy a1 and the nuclear incompressibility Ko depend essentially on μ_nN + μ_pZ - 2E_N,whereas the symmetry energy J and the density symmetry coefficient L as well as symmetry incompressibility Ks depend essentially on μ_n - μ_p,where μ_p ＝μp - ∂E_c/∂Z,μ_n and μ_p are the neutron and proton chemical potentials respectively,E_N the nuclear energy,and E_c the Coulomb energy.The obtained symmetry energy is J ＝ 28.5 MeV,while other coefficients are uncertain within ranges depending on the model of nuclear equation of state.