Biomechanical behaviors of dragonfly wing:relationship between configuration and deformation

In this paper,the natural structures of a dragonfly wing,including the corrugation of the chordwise cross-section,the sandwich microstructure veins,and the junctions between the vein and the membrane,have been investigated with experimental observations,and the morphological parameters of these structural features are measured.The experimental result indicates that the corrugated angle among the longitudinal veins ranges from 80 to 150,and the sandwiched microstructure vein mainly consists of chitin and protein layers.Meanwhile,different finite element models,which include models I and I for the planar forewings,models II and II for the corrugated forewings,and a submodel with solid veins and membranes,are created to investigate the effects of these structural features on the natural frequency/modal,the dynamical behaviors of the flapping flight,and the deformation mechanism of the forewings.The numerical results indicate that the corrugated forewing has a more reasonable natural frequency/modal,and the first order up-down flapping frequency of the corrugated wing is closer to the experimental result(about 27.00 Hz),which is significantly larger than that of the planar forewing(10.94 Hz).For the dynamical responses,the corrugated forewing has a larger torsional angle than the planar forewing,but a lower flapping angle.In addition,the sandwich microstructure veins can induce larger amplitudes of torsion deformation,because of the decreasing stiffness of the whole forewing.For the submodel of the forewing,the average stress of the chitin layer is much larger than that of the protein layer in the longitudinal veins.These simulative methods assist us to explain the flapping flight mechanism of the dragonfly and to design a micro aerial vehicle by automatically adjusting the corrugated behavior of the wing.     

Visualization of flapping wing of the drone beetle

Investigation of flapping wings of insect are focused on low Reynolds number effect and the unsteady aerodynamic properties. Interaction between flapping wing of insects and the air flow became one of important and fundamental research topics in micro air vehicle. The present work is aim to investigate the flow behavior of flapping wings of tethered scarab beetle. The generation mechanisms of velocity field and vortex formation are visualized with smoke-wire method. Tethered flight of the drone beetle shows the motion with elastic deformation of flapping wing. Measured flapping frequency is about 71 Hz and its frequency is higher than for dragonfly and butterfly. Beetle decreases negative lift by feathering motion in the upstroke process and increase positive lift by effect of wake capture in the downstroke process.     

弹性拍翼悬停时的流固耦合效应

自然界中的昆虫和鸟类大都采用拍翼飞行的策略，其优越的气动表现使拍动飞行方式备受关注.值得注意的是，拍动飞行昆虫和鸟类在实现高机动性的同时，产生的噪音并不十分显著.因此，对拍翼飞行的流固声耦合问题进行研究，揭示其飞行动力学和声学特性，对于应用这类飞行技术具有重要的指导意义.文章采用一种浸入边界法对拍翼悬停时的流固声耦合问题进行数值模拟研究.具体针对刚性拍翼和不同刚度、质量比的柔性拍翼进行了数值模拟，分析了拍翼刚度和质量比对拍翼悬停时的升力和声学特性的影响.结果表明拍翼的转动能有效增加升力，提高效率并降低拍翼运动产生的声音；同时悬停拍翼的近场声受涡的影响明显，尤其是在较大的转动角度时；引入适当的弹性可有效提高拍翼在悬停时的气动表现，包括提高升力系数和效率；综合考虑气动和声学表现，可以看出当无量纲拍动频率在0.3~0.4时，低质量的拍翼（拍翼-流体质量比为1.0）产生的声音较小，同时又具备较高的效率.      

Experimental investigations of the functional morphology of dragonfly wings

Nowadays, the importance of identifying the flight mechanisms of the dragonfly, as an inspiration for designing flapping wing vehicles, is well known. An experimental approach to understanding the complexities of insect wings as organs of flight could provide significant outcomes for design purposes. In this paper, a comprehensive investigation is carried out on the morphological and microstructural features of dragonfly wings. Scanning electron microscopy （SEM） and tensile testing are used to experimentally verify the functional roles of different parts of the wings. A number of SEM images of the elements of the wings, such as the nodus, leading edge, trailing edge, and vein sections, which play dominant roles in strengthening the whole structure, are presented. The results from the tensile tests indicate that the nodus might be the critical region of the wing that is subjected to high tensile stresses. Considering the patterns of the longitudinal corrugations of the wings obtained in this paper, it can be supposed that they increase the load-bearing capacity, giving the wings an ability to tolerate dynamic loading conditions. In addition, it is suggested that the longitudinal veins, along with the leading and trailing edges, are structural mechanisms that further improve fatigue resistance by providing higher fracture toughness, preventing crack propagation, and allowing the wings to sustain a significant amount of damage without loss of strength.     

Aerodynamic sound generation of flapping wing

The unsteady flow and acoustic characteristics of the flapping wing are numerically investigated for a two-dimensional model of Bombus terrestris bumblebee at hovering and forward flight conditions. The Reynolds number Re, based on the maximum translational velocity of the wing and the chord length, is 8800 and the Mach number M is 0.0485. The computational results show that the flapping wing sound is generated by two different sound generation mechanisms. A primary dipole tone is generated at wing beat frequency by the transverse motion of the wing, while other higher frequency dipole tones are produced via vortex edge scattering during a tangential motion. It is also found that the primary tone is directional because of the torsional angle in wing motion. These features are only distinct for hovering, while in forward flight condition, the wing-vortex interaction becomes more prominent due to the free stream effect. Thereby, the sound pressure level spectrum is more broadband at higher frequencies and the frequency compositions become similar in all directions.     

Quantification of wing and body kinematics in connection to torque generation during damselfly yaw turn

This study provides accurate measurements of the wing and body kinematics of three different species of damselflies in free yaw turn flights. The yaw turn is characterized by a short acceleration phase which is immediately followed by an elongated deceleration phase. Most of the heading change takes place during the latter stage of the flight. Our observations showed that yaw turns are executed via drastic rather than subtle changes in the kinematics of all four wings. The motion of the inner and outer wings were found to be strongly linked through their orientation as well as their velocities with the inner wings moving faster than the outer wings. By controlling the pitch angle and wing velocity, a damselfly adjusts the angle of attack. The wing angle of attack exerted the strongest influence on the yaw torque, followed by the flapping and deviation velocities of the wings. Moreover, no evidence of active generation of counter torque was found in the flight data implying that deceleration and stopping of the maneuver is dominated by passive damping. The systematic analysis carried out on the free flight data advances our understanding of the mechanisms by which these insects achieve their observed maneuverability. In addition, the inspiration drawn from this study can be employed in the design of low frequency flapping wing micro air vehicles (MAV’s).     

Integrated modeling of insect flight: From morphology,kinematics to aerodynamics

An integrated and rigorous model for the simulation of insect flapping flight is addressed. The method is very versatile, easily integrating the modeling of realistic wing–body morphology, realistic flapping-wing and body kinematics, and unsteady aerodynamics in insect flight. A morphological model is built based on an effective differential geometric method for reconstructing geometry of and a specific grid generator for the wings and body; and a kinematic model is constructed capable to mimic the realistic wing–body kinematics of flapping flight. A fortified FVM-based NS solver for dynamically moving multi-blocked, overset-grid systems is developed and verified to be self-consistent by a variety of benchmark tests; and evaluation of flapping energetics is established on inertial and aerodynamic forces, torques and powers. Validation of this integrated insect dynamic flight simulator is achieved by comparisons of aerodynamic force-production with measurements in terms of the time-varying and mean lift and drag forces. Results for three typical insect hovering flights (hawkmoth, honeybee and fruitfly) over a wide rang of Reynolds numbers from O(10²) to O(10⁴) demonstrate its feasibility in accurately modeling and quantitatively evaluating the unsteady aerodynamic mechanisms in insect flapping flight.     

A fluid–structure interaction model of insect flight with flexible wings

We present a fluid–structure interactions (FSI) model of insect flapping flight with flexible wings. This FSI-based model is established by loosely coupling a finite element method (FEM)-based computational structural dynamic (CSD) model and a computational fluid dynamic (CFD)-based insect dynamic flight simulator. The CSD model is developed specifically for insect flapping flight, which is capable to model thin shell structures of insect flexible wings by taking into account the distribution and anisotropy in both wing morphology involving veins, membranes, fibers and density, and in wing material properties of Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratios. The insect dynamic flight simulator that is based on a multi-block, overset grid, fortified Navier–Stokes solver is capable to integrate modeling of realistic wing-body morphology, realistic flapping-wing and body kinematics, and unsteady aerodynamics in flapping-wing flights. Validation of the FSI-based aerodynamics and structural dynamics in flexible wings is achieved through a set of benchmark tests and comparisons with measurements, which contain a heaving spanwise flexible wing, a heaving chordwise-flexible wing with a rigid teardrop element, and a realistic hawkmoth wing rotating in air. A FSI analysis of hawkmoth hovering with flapping flexible wings is then carried out and discussed with a specific focus on the in-flight deformation of the hawkmoth wings and hovering aerodynamic performances with the flexible and rigid wings. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of the present FSI model in accurately modeling and quantitatively evaluating flexible-wing aerodynamics of insect flapping flight in terms of the aerodynamic forces, the power consumption and the efficiency.     

Numerical Study of Two-Winged Insect Hovering Flight

The two-winged insect hovering flight is investigated numerically using the lattice Boltzmann method (LBM). A virtual model of two elliptic foils with flapping motion is used to study the aerodynamic performance of the insect hovering flight with and without the effect of ground surface. Systematic studies have been carried out by changing some parameters of the wing kinematics, including the stroke amplitude, attack angle, and the Reynolds number for the insect hovering flight without ground effect, as well as the distance between the flapping foils and the ground surface when the ground effect is considered. The influence of the wing kinematic parameters and the effect of the ground surface on the unsteady forces and vortical structures are analyzed. The unsteady forces acting on the flapping foils are verified to be closely associated with the time evolution of the vortex structures, foil translational and rotational accelerations, and interaction between the flapping foils and the existed vortical flow. Typical unsteady mechanisms of lift production are identified by examining the vortical structures around the flapping foils. The results obtained in this study provide some physical insight into the understanding of the aerodynamics and flow structures for the insect hovering flight.     

Flow visualization and aerodynamic-force measurement of a dragonfly-type model

An unsteady flow visualization and force measurement were carried out in order to investigate the effects of the reduced frequency of a dragonfly-type model. The flow visualization of the wing wake region was conducted by using a smoke-wire technique. An electronic device was mounted below the test section in order to find the exact position angle of the wing for the visualization. A load-cell was employed in measuring aerodynamic forces generated by a plunging motion of the experimental model. To find the period of the flapping motion in real time, trigger signals were also collected by passing laser beam signals through the gear hole. Experimental conditions were as follows: the incidence angles of the foreand hind-wing were 0° and 10°, respectively, and the reduced frequencies were 0.150 and 0.225. The freestream velocities of the flow visualization and force measurement were 1.0 and 1.6m/sec, respectively, which correspond to Reynolds numbers of 3.4 × 10³ and 2.9 × 10³. The variations of the flow patterns and phase-averaged lift and the thrust coefficients during one cycle of the wing motion were presented. Results showed that the reduced frequency was closely related to the flow pattern that determined flight efficiency, and the maximum lift coefficient and lift coefficient per unit of time increased with reduced frequency.     

Effect of forewing and hindwing interactions on aerodynamic forces and power in hovering dragonfly flight

Dragonflies are four-winged insects that have the ability to control aerodynamic performance by modulating the phase lag (phi) between forewings and hindwings. We film the wing motion of a tethered dragonfly and compute the aerodynamic force and power as a function of the phase. We find that the out-of-phase motion as seen in steady hovering uses nearly minimal power to generate the required force to balance the weight, and the in-phase motion seen in takeoffs provides an additional force to accelerate. We explain the main hydrodynamic interaction that causes this phase dependence.     

扑翼尾流脱落涡特性的PIV实验研究

通过色流实验和粒子成像测速技术(particle image velocimetry, PIV)对扑翼近场尾流脱落涡的结构轨迹和能量进行了定性及定量研究.结果表明:因展向流动充分性的不同, 存在两种牛角型涡系结构; 上下扑时翅翼交替产生顺时针和逆时针脱落涡, 两涡运动轨迹呈近似弧形对称, 对称轴的仰角略大于攻角; 脱落涡的涡心涡量在上下扑极点达到最大值, 环量最大值出现在到达极点前的1/5~2/5周期之间; 产生脱落涡的半周期内, 涡的平均环量都随减缩频率的增大而增大, 减缩频率较低时, 下扑平均环量大于上扑平均环量, 减缩频率较高时则相反; 振幅对涡能量影响明显, 减缩频率为2~2.5时, 振幅±40°时的涡平均环量约是振幅±30°时的两倍, 减缩频率越大振幅影响越明显.      

Sound transmission across lightweight all-metallic sandwich panels with corrugated cores

The transmission of sound through all-metallic sandwich panels with corrugated cores is investigated using the space-harmonic method. The sandwich panel is modeled as two parallel panels connected by uniformly distributed translational springs and rotational springs, with the mass of the core sheets taken as lumped mass. Based on the periodicity of the panel structure, a unit cell model is developed to provide the effective translational and rotational stiffness of the core. To check the validity of the model, it is used first to study the sound insulation properties of double-panel structures with air cavity, and the analytical predictions agree well with existing experimental data. The model is then employed to quantify the influence of sound incidence angle and the inclination angle between facesheet and core sheet on sound transmission loss （STL） across sandwich panels with corrugated cores. The results show that the inclination angle has a significant effect on STL and it is possible to avoid STL dips by altering the inclination angle. Moreover, it is found that sandwich panels with corrugated cores are more suitable for the insulation of sound waves having small incidence angles.     

串列扑翼间前缘涡在不同间距下对平均推力的影响

利用压力传感器测量扑翼的瞬时力,利用数字粒子测速仪（digital particle image velocimetry,DPIV）系统测量扑翼的前缘涡以及周围的流场,来揭示前缘涡在不同间距下对扑翼平均推力的影响.实验在一个低Reynolds数循环水洞中进行,两串列扑翼均做二维正弦平动.在固定的相位差下,当间距增加时,后翅前缘涡对前翅的影响具有相似性,均提高或者均降低前翅的平均推力.前翅平均推力的提高是由于后翅的前缘涡提高了前翅尾部的射流速度以及有效攻角.随着间距的增加,后翅前缘涡对前翅的影响急剧下降,使得前翅的平均推力快速接近于单翼值.在固定的相位差下,当间距增加时,前翅的脱落涡对后翅的影响变化非常大,后翅的平均推力可能先升高后降低,这是因为间距改变了前翅脱落涡作用于后翅的时间点.当前翅脱落涡遇到后翅,并且和后翅的前缘涡有相同的旋转方向时,前翅的脱落涡会抑制后翅前缘涡的形成,并且后翅的有效攻角减小,其平均推力降低.如果这两个涡的旋转方向相反,那么后翅有效攻角就会增大,平均推力值就会提高.      

Sound radiation around a flying fly

Many insects produce sounds during flight. These acoustic emissions result from the oscillation of the wings in air. To date, most studies have measured the frequency characteristics of flight sounds, leaving other acoustic characteristics--and their possible biological functions--unexplored. Here, using close-range acoustic recording, we describe both the directional radiation pattern and the detailed frequency composition of the sound produced by a tethered flying (Lucilia sericata). The flapping wings produce a sound wave consisting of a series of harmonics, the first harmonic occurring around 190 Hz. In the horizontal plane of the fly, the first harmonic shows a dipolelike amplitude distribution whereas the second harmonic shows a monopolelike radiation pattern. The first frequency component is dominant in front of the fly while the second harmonic is dominant at the sides. Sound with a broad frequency content, typical of that produced by wind, is also recorded at the back of the fly. This sound qualifies as pseudo-sound and results from the vortices generated during wing kinematics. Frequency and amplitude features may be used by flies in different behavioral contexts such as sexual communication, competitive communication, or navigation within the environment.     

SEM characterization of anatomical variation in chitin organization in insect and arthropod cuticles

The cuticles of insects and arthropods have some of the most diverse material properties observed in nature, so much so that it is difficult to imagine that all cutciles are primarily composed of the same two materials: a fibrous chitin network and a matrix composed of cuticle proteins. Various factors contribute to the mechanical and optical properties of an insect or arthropod cuticle including the thickness and composition. In this paper, we also identified another factor that may contribute to the optical, surface, and mechanical properties of a cuticle, i.e. the organization of chitin nanofibers and chitin fiber bundles. Self-assembled chitin nanofibers serve as the foundation for all higher order chitin structures in the cuticles of insects and other arthropods via interactions with structural cuticle proteins. Using a technique that enables the characterization of chitin organization in the cuticle of intact insects and arthropod exoskeletons, we demonstrate a structure/function correlation of chitin organization with larger scale anatomical structures. The chitin scaffolds in cuticles display an extraordinarily diverse set of morphologies that may reflect specific mechanical or physical properties. After removal of the proteinaceous and mineral matrix of a cuticle, we observe using SEM diverse nanoscale and micro scale organization of in-situ chitin in the wing, head, eye, leg, and dorsal and ventral thoracic regions of the periodical cicada Magicicada septendecim and in other insects and arthropods. The organization of chitin also appears to have a significant role in the organization of nanoscale surface structures. While microscale bristles and hairs have long been known to be chitin based materials formed as cellular extensions, we have found a nanostructured layer of chitin in the cuticle of the wing of the dog day annual cicada Tibicen tibicens, which may be the scaffold for the nanocone arrays found on the wing. We also use this process to examine the chitin organizations in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, and the Atlantic brown shrimp, Farfantepenaeus aztecus. Interestingly many of the homologous anatomical structures from diverse arthropods exhibit similar patterns of chitin organization suggesting that a common set of parameters, govern chitin organization.     

Shape reconstructions and morphing kinematics of an eagle during perching manoeuvres

The key to high manoeuvre ability in bird flight lies in the combined morphing of wings and tail.The perching of a wild Haliaeetus Albicilla without running or wing flapping is recorded and investigated using a high-speed digital video.A shape reconstruction method is proposed to describe wing contours and tail contours during perching.The avian airfoil geometries of the Aquila Chrysaetos are extracted from noncontact surface measurements using a ROMBER 3 D laser scanner.The wing planform,chord distribution and twist distribution are fitted in convenient analytical expressions to obtain a 3 D wing geometry.A three-jointed arm model is proposed to associate with the 3 D wing geometry,while a one-joint arm model is proposed to describe the kinematics of tail.Therefore,a 3 D bird model is established.The perching sequences of the wild eagle are recaptured and regenerated with the proposed 3 D bird model.A quasi-steady aerodynamic model is applied in the aerodynamic predictions,a four-step Adams-Bashforth method is used to calculate the ordinary differential equations,thus a BFGS based optimization method is established to predict the perching motions.     

Natural Convection from a Corrugated Heated Surface at the Bottom of Vented Rectangular Enclosure

Natural convection heat transfer characteristics enclosures from a tilted rectangular enclosure heated at the corrugated bottom wall and vented by uniform slots opening at the top wall are experimentally investigated. The experiments were carried out to study the effects of the angle of opening of the corrugated surface, opening ratio, enclosure's tilt angle, and Rayleigh number on the passive cooling of the enclosure. The experiments were carried out at Rayleigh numbers ranging from 2 × 10⁸ to 1.52 × 10⁹ for enclosure tilt angles ranging from 0° to 90° and angle of opening of corrugated surface ranging from 0° to 25°. The top venting arrangement was studied at different opening ratios of 1, 0.75, 0.5, and 0.25. The results gave an optimum angle of opening of the corrugated surface at which Nusselt number is maximum.     

稳态损耗因子的衰减法识别研究

根据稳态损耗因子的定义, 推导了含多阶模态的频带稳态损耗因子公式, 得到结论: 稳态损耗因子不一定介于各阶模态损耗因子之间, 而是与各阶模态对振动响应的贡献程度有关. 提出了过程损耗因子的概念, 并给出了利用频带内各模态固有频率、损耗因子和振幅计算过程损耗因子的方法. 当时间趋于无穷时, 过程损耗因子趋于只由最小模态损耗因子贡献的稳态损耗因子. 传统衰减法测试稳态损耗因子在频带内仅有单个模态或模态密集的情况下精度较高, 但对于含有多阶模态且模态不密集的中频带, 采用传统衰减法准确获取稳态损耗因子存在困难. 根据过程损耗因子的特点, 提出了利用时域衰减曲线逐步分离频带内不同衰减特性分量及其响应幅度从而获取稳态损耗因子的方法. 仿真和实验均表明: 提出的利用时域衰减数据获取稳态损耗因子的方法具有很高精度, 可以弥补传统衰减法在中频段损耗因子实验确定中的不足.     

Replication of butterfly wing microstructures using molding lithography

This study employed a soft lithography technique to fabricate a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) replica of the multi-layered scales on the upper surface of a Morpho butterfly. The bionic photonic crystal microstructure of the replicated scales was examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The absorptivity, reflectivity and fluorescent characteristics of the wing were measured. The results showed that the microstructural and optical characteristics of the replicated wing qualitatively agree with those of the actual wing. The contact angle for the natural wing structure and the replicated wing were about 143° and 120°, respectively. As a result, it can be inferred that the soft lithography technique employed in this study represents a viable approach for the mass production of artificial photonic crystal structures for a variety of commercial applications, including optical elements for computing and communications purposes, photonic integrated circuits, anti-counterfeiting mechanisms, and so forth.