低活化铁素体/马氏体钢CLF-1激光焊接模式转变研究

为研究低活化铁素体/马氏体钢(RAFM) CLF-1激光焊接模式转变规律,对其焊缝横截面形貌及尺寸进行了宏观表征和定量分析。结果表明,在一定条件下,随着焊接功率的增大,焊接模式从热传导焊模式向小孔深熔焊模式转变,焊缝横截面表现为“圆弧形”、“V字形”和“钉头形”三种类型形貌。CLF-1钢激光焊接模式不受焊接速度、离焦量变化的影响。激光焊接模式转变的临界值为深熔焊阈值,CLF-1钢深熔焊阈值由材料自身特性决定,当焊接速度为10mm·s^-1时,CLF-1钢深熔焊阈值约为1.20kW·mm^-1。     

Laser welding of low-thickness zinc-coated and uncoated carbon steel sheets

Laser welding is a competitive joining process for low-thickness plates. The speeds achieved with laser welding using a CO₂ laser and the low heat input introduced to the base material are the main advantages of this process. The widespread use of laser welding will increase the productivity and accuracy of welding operations. Nevertheless, there are still important developments to be made.The results of laser welding of thin sheets (below 1.25 mm) of uncoated and zinc-coated carbon steels are presented. A CO₂ laser was used for the welding of sheets of different thicknesses and to make dissimilar welds (carbon steel to zinc-coated steel). The bead dimensions and the distortions of the welded sheets are analysed.     

Laser welding of aluminium lightweight materials: problems,solutions, readiness for application

Using high-power CO₂ and Nd:YAG lasers of high beam quality, high process efficiencies and excellent seam qualities are achieved. A particular method for obtaining almost pore-free weld seams without blowholes is the combining of the beams of two CO₂ lasers. Without the need for filler material, crack-free welds can be produced in sheets of hot-crack susceptible, precipitation hardened alloys up to a welding speed of 5–7m min^-1 for full penetration and up to 3–4m min^-1 for partial penetration. In contrast, AlMg alloys containing more than 2.5wt% Mg and AlSi cast alloys are insensitive to hot-cracking even at high processing speeds. Laser welds possess much better static mechanical properties than gas tungsten arc (GTA) or gas metal arc (GMA) butt welds. For the alloys AlMgSi1 and AlMg5Mn the maximum static strength which can be achieved in laser welding is determined by the alloy type, i.e. the hardening mechanism and the heat-treated condition. Laser butt welded car body sheets without filler material exhibit the same load-bearing capacity under dynamical load as GMA welds with filler material. The latest research work has demonstrated that high-quality tailored blanks with good mechanical properties can also be made out of different aluminium plates.     

Sheet metal welding using a pulsed Nd: YAG laser-robot

This paper presents a pulsed Nd: YAG laser-robot system for spot and seam welding of mild steel sheets. The study evaluates the laser beams behaviour for welding, and then investigates pulsed Nd: YAG laser spot and seam welding processes. High pulse power intensity is needed to initiate the key-hole welding process and a threshold pulse energy to reach full penetration. In seam welding, a weld consists of successive overlapping spots. Both high pulse energy and high average power are needed to keep the key-hole welding going. A 70% overlap is used to define overlapping spot welding as seam welding and to optimize process parameters because a high tensile strength joint compatible with the strength of the base material can be obtained when the overlap is ≥70%; at the same time a smooth seam with full penetration is obtained. In these cases, the joints in pulsed Nd: YAG laser welding are comparable in strength to those obtained with CO₂ laser welding. Robot positioning and motion accuracies can meet the demands of Nd: YAG laser sheet metal welding, but its cornering accuracy affects the welding processes. The purpose of the study is to evaluate the YAG laser-robot system for production in the automotive industry.     

热塑性塑料的激光焊接实验研究

建立了半导体激光焊接系统，在此系统上进行了热塑性塑料的激光焊接实验，研究了不同颜料有机玻璃材料组合的激光焊接可行性，进行了有机玻璃的激光焊接实验，并对焊接样品的焊接强度进行了测试。     

Modelling of CO2 laser welding of magnesium alloys

Laser welding is an important joining process for magnesium alloys. These materials are being increasingly used in different applications such as in aerospace, aircraft, automotive, electronics, etc. To date, carbon dioxide (CO₂) neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) and the high power diode laser have been extensively used to investigate the weldability of magnesium alloys. The present work describes an analytical thermal model for the weldability of magnesium alloys (WE43) using an industrial (CO₂) laser source. The main target of the project is to present to the industrial community a simple and rapid tool for the determination of the penetration depth and the bead width as a function of both the incident laser power and welding speed. The proposed model is based on the Davis thermal approach, largely considered for the characterization of the average radius of the liquid zone, aiming at predicting the joint shape. Moreover, since during the welding process considered in this study, a protecting gas is used to avoid joint oxidation, both thermal convection and radiation phenomena in the welding area have been estimated and introduced in our model for a better characterization of the welding process. The obtained results have been compared to the experimental ones and a satisfactory correlation has been observed, indicating the reliability of the model developed in this study.     

高温合金活性剂激光微焊接接头的组织性能研究

采用配方均匀设计法,配制了SiO2-MnO2-CaO-TiO2-CaF2-NaF多组元活性剂,利用微型脉冲激光器对500 m厚GH4169高温合金进行了活性剂激光焊接试验。分析并讨论了焊接接头的显微组织和力学性能。试验结果表明,与传统激光焊相比,所配制的20种活性剂均增加了焊缝熔深,并且其中F12系混合活性剂增加熔深能力最为显著,使焊缝深宽比增加了159%,证明通过使用活性剂来增加微激光焊焊缝熔深,降低高温合金板激光焊接的成本是可行的。在活性剂作用下,焊缝显微组织仍由柱状晶和等轴晶组成,接头抗拉强度达到927 MPa,为母材强度的92.7%。     

Production of nanostructures on bulk metal samples by laser ablation for fabrication of low-reflective surfaces

Nanostructure formation on bulk noble metals (copper, gold and silver) by a femtosecond laser was studied aiming at the production of low-reflectivity surfaces. The target surface was irradiated with the beam of a 775 nm wavelength and 150 fs pulse duration Ti:sapphire laser. The fluence was in the 16–2000 mJ/cm² range, while the average pulse number was varied between 10 and 1000 depending on the scanning speed of the sample stage. The reflectivity of the treated surfaces was measured with a visible–near-infrared microspectrometer in the 450–800 nm range, while the morphology was studied with a scanning electron microscope. A strong correlation was found between the decreasing reflectivity and the nanostructure formation on the irradiated surface; however, the morphology of silver significantly differed from those of copper and gold. For the two latter metals a dense coral-like structure was found probably as a result of cluster condensation in the ablation plume followed by diffusion-limited aggregation. In the case of silver the surface was covered by nanodroplets, which formation was probably influenced by the ‘spitting’ caused by ambient oxygen absorption in the molten silver followed by its fast release during the resolidification.     

Statistical modeling of laser welding of DP/TRIP steel sheets

In this research work, a statistical analysis of the CO₂ laser beam welding of dual phase (DP600)/transformation induced plasticity (TRIP700) steel sheets was done using response surface methodology. The analysis considered the effect of laser power (2–2.2 kW), welding speed (40–50 mm/s) and focus position (?1 to 0 mm) on the heat input, the weld bead geometry, uniaxial tensile strength, formability limited dome height and welding operation cost. The experimental design was based on Box–Behnken design using linear and quadratic polynomial equations for predicting the mathematical models. The results indicate that the proposed models predict the responses adequately within the limits of welding parameters being used and the welding speed is the most significant parameter during the welding process.     

Microstructure and corrosion properties of diode laser melted friction stir weld of aluminum alloy 2024 T351

Friction stir welding is a promising solid state joining process for high strength aluminum alloys. Though friction stir welding eliminates the problems of fusion welding as it is performed below melting temperature (T_m), it creates severe plastic deformation. Friction stir welds of some aluminum alloys exhibit relatively poor corrosion resistance. This research enhanced the corrosion properties of such welds through diode laser surface melting.A friction stir weld of aluminum alloy 2024 T351 was laser melted using a 1 kW diode laser. The melt-depth and microstructure were investigated using optical and scanning electron microscopy. The melt zone exhibited epitaxially grown columnar grains. At the interface between the melted and the un-melted zone, a thick planar boundary was observed. Energy dispersive spectroscopy analyzed the redistribution of elemental composition. The corrosion properties of the laser melted and native welds were studied in aqueous 0.5 M sodium chloride solution using open circuit potential and cyclic potentiodynamic polarization. The results show noticeable increase in the pit nucleation resistance (390 mV) after the laser surface treatment. The repassivation potential was nobler to the corrosion potential after the laser treatment, which confirmed that the resistance to pit growth was improved.     

Optimization of laser welding of DP/TRIP steel sheets using statistical approach

Generally, the quality of a weld joint is directly influenced by the welding input parameter settings. Selection of proper process parameters is important to obtain the desired weld bead profile and quality. In this research work, numerical and graphical optimization techniques of the CO₂ laser beam welding of dual phase (DP600)/transformation induced plasticity (TRIP700) steel sheets were carried out using response surface methodology (RSM) based on Box–Behnken design. The procedure was established to improve the weld quality, increase the productivity and minimize the total operation cost by considering the welding parameters range of laser power (2–2.2 kW), welding speed (40–50 mm/s) and focus position (?1 to 0 mm). It was found that, RSM can be considered as a powerful tool in experimental welding optimization, even when the experimenter does not have a model for the process. Strong, efficient and low cost weld joints could be achieved using the optimum welding conditions.     

Coaxial monitoring of keyhole during Yb:YAG laser welding

In laser remote welding using a scanner, high-speed welding can be achieved by using a 6-axial robot and a galvanometric mirror. In this system, because the laser projection point changes depending on the mirror's position, coaxial monitoring is required to track welding phenomena.This paper presents coaxial monitoring of the keyhole generated by an Yb:YAG laser beam during laser lap welding of steel and Al sheets. A coaxial image camera and a coaxial illumination laser are integrated into the proposed monitoring system. The areas of the keyhole and the full penetration hole were calculated by image processing, and their behaviours were investigated under various welding conditions. The keyhole was monitored using various band-pass filters and a coaxial illumination laser. Adequate filters were suggested for steel and Al alloy welding.     

Nucleation and growth of silver nanoshells through copper vapor laser irradiation

Silica core–silver shell, silver nanoshells (NSs), have been synthesized by an innovative laser-based approach. The NSs’ nucleation and growth progressed upon the pulse strikes of a copper vapor laser on a colloidal solution containing silver and silica nanoparticles (NPs). The silver NPs were separately synthesized by ablation of a silver target in deionized water by a 1064 nm Q-switched Nd:YAG laser. The dependence of silver NSs’ growth on the laser exposure time has been systematically studied by UV–VIS absorption spectroscopy technique. Transmission electron microscopy was exploited as well to visually confirm the NSs’ evolution through the process.     

A study of the shielding gas influence on the laser beam welding of AA5083 aluminium alloys by in-process spectroscopic investigation

In laser welding, the shielding gas is commonly used to stabilize the welding process, to improve welded joints features and to protect the welded seam against oxidization. Besides the type of shielding gas used, the nozzle parameters play an essential role. In fact, the chemical composition of the shielding gas and the flow geometry are key factors limiting the size of the plasma plume and its contamination by the surrounding atmosphere, and affecting the final quality of the welded joints.In this work, we present an experimental study on the complex physical phenomena occurring during the interaction between the plasma plume, the laser beam and the shielding gas by using an in-process spectroscopic investigation of the plasma plume characteristics under different operating conditions. A correlation was found between the spectral features and the formation of oxide layers on the surface of the welding seam, caused by defective gas shielding and by the vaporization of alloying elements. Experimental results have given useful indications for the development of innovative welding nozzle for application in laser welding of aluminium alloys.     

Nanoporous Al sandwich foils using size effect of Al layer thickness during Cu/Al/Cu laminate rolling

The roll bonding technique is one of the most widely used methods to produce metal laminate sheets. Such sheets offer interesting research opportunities for both scientists and engineers. In this paper, we report on an experimental investigation of the ‘thickness effect’ during laminate rolling for the first time. Using a four-high multifunction rolling mill, Cu/Al/Cu laminate sheets were fabricated with a range of thicknesses (16, 40, 70 and 130 μm) of the Al layer. The thickness of the Cu sheets was a constant 300 μm. After rolling, TEM images show good bonding quality between the Cu and Al layers. However, there are many nanoscale pores in the Al layer. The fraction of nanoscale pores in the Al layer increases with a reduction in the Al layer thickness. The finite element method was used to simulate the Cu/Al/Cu rolling process. The simulation results reveal the effect of the Al layer thickness on the deformation characteristics of the Cu/Al/Cu laminate. Finally, we propose that the size effect of the Al layer thickness during Cu/Al/Cu laminate rolling may offer a method to fabricate ‘nanoporous’ Al sandwich laminate foils. Such foils can be used in electromagnetic shielding of electrical devices and noisy shielding of building.     

Parametric optimisation and microstructural analysis on high power Yb-fibre laser welding of Ti–6Al–4V

In this work thin sheets of Ti–6Al–4V were full penetration welded using a 5 kW fibre laser in order to evaluate the effectiveness of high power fibre laser as a welding processing tool for welding Ti–6Al–4V with the requirements of the aircraft industry and to determine the effect of welding parameters including laser power, welding speed and beam focal position on the weld microstructure, bead profile and weld quality. It involved establishing an understanding of the influence of welding parameters on microstructural change, welding defects, and the characteristics of heat affected zone (HAZ) and weld metal (WM) of fibre laser welded joints. The optimum range of welding parameters which produced welds without cracking and porosity were identified. The influence of the welding parameters on the weld joint heterogeneity was characterised by conducting detailed microstructural analysis.     

Effect of carbon nanotube amount on polyethylene welding process induced by laser source

This paper reports a study of the laser welding of polymeric joints composed by two polyethylene sheets, one pristine and the other filled by carbon nanotubes. In order to know the material modifications occurring during the laser exposure and the phenomena that seal the polymeric sheets, the physical, chemical and mechanical features of the welded area were analysed. The mechanical resistance of the welded joint and the structural changes of the polymer were checked by mechanical shear tests, absorption coefficient measurements, calorimetric analyses, mass quadrupole spectrometry and electron microscopy. The welding effectiveness was investigated as a function of the filler concentration.     

Correlation spectroscopy as a tool for detecting losses of ligand elements in laser welding of aluminium alloys

The plasma plume induced during laser welding of metals is a mixture of metal vapour, coming from the vaporised weld pool surface and shielding gas. The influence of the shielding gas on the welded joints quality is not yet well understood and very few investigations, to the best of our knowledge, were addressed to study its role in case of welding of aluminium–magnesium alloys. In this paper we present a study of the dynamics of plasma plume produced in laser welding of 5xxx aluminium alloys by means of correlation spectroscopy. By our results we can correlate the influence of the welding speed, in case of ineffective gas shielding, to the loss of alloying elements. Finally, the results obtained are consistent with the EDX analysis performed in post-processing on the welded joints.     

Dual beam method for laser welding of galvanized steel: Experimentation and prospects

Laser welding of zinc-coated steel sheets in lap configuration poses a challenging problem, because of the zinc vapours spoiling the quality of the weld. In continuation to the earlier work, the novel solution of dual laser beam method for lap welding of galvanized steel sheets is discussed here in view of the recently obtained observations and ensuing concerns. In this method the precursor beam cuts a slot, thus making an exit path for the zinc vapours, while the second beam performs the needed welding. The metallurgical analysis of the welds is encouraging showing absence of zinc in the welded area. In the current work on this technique, new experimental results have been obtained verifying the earlier observations. Along with this, the possibility of using a transversely split-up beam for the welding purposes with this approach is discussed and analyzed in this paper. This new technique is expected to be very useful in prospective industrial applications requiring higher welding throughput along with the needed quality.     

Modelling and optimization of cut quality during pulsed Nd:YAG laser cutting of thin Al-alloy sheet for straight profile

Thin sheets of aluminium alloys are widely used in aerospace and automotive industries for specific applications. Nd:YAG laser beam cutting is one of the most promising sheetmetal cutting process for cutting sheets for any profile. Al-alloy sheets are difficult to cut by laser beam because of its highly reflective nature. This paper presents modelling and optimization of cut quality during pulsed Nd:YAG laser cutting of thin Al-alloy sheet for straight profile. In the present study, four input process parameters such as oxygen pressure, pulse width, pulse frequency, and cutting speed and two output parameters such as average kerf taper (T_a) and average surface roughness (R_a) are considered. The hybrid approach comprising of Taguchi methodology (TM) and response surface methodology (RSM) is used for modelling whereas multi-objective optimization is performed using hybrid approach of TM and grey relational analysis (GRA) coupled with entropy measurement methodology. The entropy measurement methodology is employed for the calculation of weight corresponding to each quality characteristic. The results indicate that the hybrid approaches applied for modelling and optimization of the LBC process are reasonable.