640 × 512 pixel narrow-band, four-band, and broad-band quantum well infrared photodetector focal plane arrays

A 9 μm cutoff 640 × 512 pixel hand-held quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP) camera has been demonstrated with excellent imagery. A noise equivalent differential temperature (NEDT) of 10.6 mK is expected at a 65 K operating temperature with f/2 optics at a 300 K background. This focal plane array has shown background limited performance at a 72 K operating temperature with the same optics and background conditions. In this paper, we discuss the development of this very sensitive long-wavelength infrared camera based on a GaAs/AlGaAs QWIP focal plane array and its performance in quantum efficiency, NEDT, uniformity, and operability. In the second section of this paper, we discuss the first demonstration of a monolithic spatially separated four-band 640 × 512 pixel QWIP focal plane array and its performance. The four spectral bands cover 4–5.5, 8.5–10, 10–12, and 13.5–15 μm spectral regions with 640 × 128 pixels in each band. In the last section, we discuss the array performance of a 640 × 512 pixel broad-band (10–16 μm full-width at half-maximum) QWIP focal plane.     

Development of a 1K × 1K, 8–12 μm QWIP array

In the on-going evolution of GaAs quantum well infrared photodetectors (QWIPs) we have developed a 1,024 × 1,024 (1K × 1K), 8–12  μm infrared focal plane array (FPA). This 1 megapixel detector array is a hybrid using an L3/Cincinnati Electronics silicon readout integrated circuit (ROIC) bump bonded to a GaAs QWIP array fabricated jointly by engineers at the Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and the Army Research Laboratory (ARL). We have integrated the 1K × 1K array into an SE-IR based imaging camera system and performed tests over the 50–80 K temperature range achieving BLIP performance at an operating temperature of 57 K. The GaAs array is relatively easy to fabricate once the superlattice structure of the quantum wells has been defined and grown. The overall arrays costs are currently dominated by the costs associated with the silicon readout since the GaAs array fabrication is based on high yield, well-established GaAs processing capabilities. One of the advantages of GaAs QWIP technology is the ability to fabricate arrays in a fashion similar to and compatible with silicon IC technology. The designer’s ability to easily select the spectral response of the material from 3 μm to beyond 15 μm is the result of the success of band-gap engineering and the Army Research Lab is a leader in this area. In this paper we will present the first results of our 1K × 1K QWIP array development including fabrication methodology, test data and imaging capabilities.     

Four-band quantum well infrared photodetector array

A four-band quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP) focal plane array (FPA) has been demonstrated by stacking different multi-quantum well structures, which are sensitive in 4–5.5, 8.5–10, 10–12, and 13–15.5 μm infrared bands. This 640 × 514 format FPA consists of four 640 × 128 pixel areas which are capable of acquiring images in these infrared bands. In this application, instead of quarter wevelength groove depth grating reflectors, three-quarter wavelength groove depth reflectors were used to couple radiation to each QWIP layer. This technique allows us to optimize the light coupling to each QWIP stack at corresponding pixels while keeping the pixel (or mesa) height at the same level, which will be essential for indium bump-bonding with the multiplexer. In addition to light coupling, these gratings serve as a contact to the active stack while shorting the unwanted stacks. Flexible QWIP design parameters, such as well width, barrier thickness, doping density, and the number of periods, were cleverly exploited to optimize the performance of each detector while accommodating requirements set by the deep groove light coupling gratings. For imaging, detector array is operated at temperature T=45 K, and each detector shows a very high D^*>1×10¹¹ cm  /W for 300 K background with f/2 optics. This initial array gave excellent images with 99.9% of the pixels working, demonstrating the high yield of GaAs technology.     

Development of a 4–15 μm infrared GaAs hyperspectral QWIP imager

In the on-going evolution of GaAs quantum well infrared photodetectors (QWIPs) we have developed a four band, 640 × 512, 23 μm × 23 μm pixel array which we have subsequently integrated with a linear variable etalon (LVE) filter providing over 200 spectral bands across the 4–15.4 μm wavelength region. This effort was a collaboration between NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC), the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and the Army Research Laboratory (ARL) sponsored by the Earth Science Technology Office of NASA. The QWIP array was fabricated by graded molecular beam epitaxial (MBE) growth that was specifically tailored to yield four distinct bands (FWHM): Band 1; 4.5–5.7 μm, Band 2; 8.5–10 μm, Band 3; 10–12 μm and Band 4; 13.3–14.8 μm. Each band occupies a swath that comprises 128 × 640 elements. The addition of the LVE (which is placed directly over the array) further divides the four “broad” bands into 209 separate spectral bands ranging in width from 0.02 μm at 5 μm to 0.05 μm at 15 μm. The detector is cooled by a mechanical cryocooler to 46 K. The camera system is a fully reflective, f/4.2, 3-mirror system with a 21° × 25° field of view. The project goals were: (1) develop the 4 band GaAs QWIP array; (2) develop the LVE and; (3) implement a mechanical cryocooler. This paper will describe the efforts and results of this undertaking with emphasis on the overall system characteristics.     

Uncooled microbolometer detector: Recent developments at Ulis

Uncooled infrared focal plane arrays are being developed for a wide range of thermal imaging applications. Therefore, to answer these markets, a 35 μm pixel-pitch uncooled IR detector technology has been developed enabling high performance 160 × 120 and 384 × 288 arrays production. Besides a wide-band version from uncooled 320 × 240/45 μm array has been also developed in order to address process control and more precisely industrial furnaces control. The ULIS amorphous silicon technology is well adapted to manufacture low cost detector in mass production. After some brief microbolometer technological background, we present the characterization of 35 μm pixel-pitch detector as well as the wide-band 320 × 240 infrared focal plane arrays with a pixel pitch of 45 μm. Information on the new 640 × 480 array with a pixel pitch of 25 μm is also presented.     

Towards dualband megapixel QWIP focal plane arrays

Mid-wavelength infrared (MWIR) and long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) 1024 × 1024 pixel quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP) focal planes have been demonstrated with excellent imaging performance. The MWIR QWIP detector array has demonstrated a noise equivalent differential temperature (NEΔT) of 17 mK at a 95 K operating temperature with f/2.5 optics at 300 K background and the LWIR detector array has demonstrated a NEΔT of 13 mK at a 70 K operating temperature with the same optical and background conditions as the MWIR detector array after the subtraction of system noise. Both MWIR and LWIR focal planes have shown background limited performance (BLIP) at 90 K and 70 K operating temperatures respectively, with similar optical and background conditions. In addition, we have demonstrated MWIR and LWIR pixel co-registered simultaneously readable dualband QWIP focal plane arrays. In this paper, we will discuss the performance in terms of quantum efficiency, NEΔT, uniformity, operability, and modulation transfer functions of the 1024 × 1024 pixel arrays and the progress of dualband QWIP focal plane array development work.     

LWIR/SWIR switchable two color device based on InP/InGaAs integrated HBT/QWIP

A novel two color infrared (IR) device that allows fast electrical switching between the short wavelength IR (SWIR) band (0.9–1.6 μm) and the long wavelength IR (LWIR) band (8–12 μm) is presented. The integrated sensor is based on MOCVD grown, lattice matched (to InP substrate) epilayers of InGaAs/InP and consists of two, monolithically integrated sections of heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT) and quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP).     

Performance improvements of ultraviolet/infrared dual-band detectors

Results are reported on dual-band detectors based on a GaN/AlGaN structure operating in both the ultraviolet–midinfrared (UV–MIR) and ultraviolet–farinfrared (UV–FIR) regions. The UV detection is due to an interband process, while the MIR/FIR detection is from free carrier absorption in the emitter/contact followed by internal photoemission over the barrier at the GaN/AlGaN interface. The UV detection, which was observed from 300 K to 4.2 K, has a threshold of 360 nm with a peak responsivity of 0.6 mA/W at 300 K. The detector shows a free carrier IR response in the 3–7 μm range up to 120 K, and an impurity response around 54 μm up to 30 K. A response in the range 7–13 μm, which is tentatively assigned to transitions from C impurities and N vacancies in the barrier region, was also observed. It should also be possible to develop a detector operating in the UV–visible–IR regions by choosing the appropriate material system. A dual-band detector design, which allows not only to measure the two components of the photocurrent generated by UV and IR radiation simultaneously but also to optimize the UV and IR responses independently, is proposed.     

Data processing technique applied to the calibration of a high performance FPA infrared camera

The present work deals with the calibration of a focal plane array infrared camera whose detector is a matrix of 320×244 PtSi sensors active in the range 3.6–5 μm. The calibration curve has been obtained by measuring the energy emitted by a blackbody, consisting in a copper cylindric cavity with isothermal walls. The results, obtained in the temperature range 10–70 °C, enable us to investigate the nature of the noise which affects the measurements. The aim is to suggest a data processing and a calibration technique in order to enhance the image quality and the instrument response as well. The effects of random uncertainties have been reduced by using Wiener filtration, which enables us to improve the signal to noise ratio. The problem caused by the nonuniform response of the detector array has been handled by using a different calibration curve for each sensor. The effectiveness of this procedure has been checked by comparing the frequency histograms of the raw and the processed signal. The investigation enables us to highlight some peculiar features of the new focal plane array technology employed in the new generation infrared cameras.     

NIR, MWIR and LWIR quantum well infrared photodetector using interband and intersubband transitions

This paper presents the design, fabrication and characterization of a QWIP photodetector capable of detecting simultaneously infrared radiation within near infrared (NIR), mid wavelength infrared (MWIR) and long wavelength infrared (LWIR). The NIR detection was achieved using interband transition while MWIR and LWIR were based on intersubband transition in the conduction band. The quantum well structure was designed using a computational tool developed to solve self-consistently the Schrödinger–Poisson equation with the help of the shooting method. Intersubband absorption in the sample was measured for the MWIR and LWIR using Fourier transform spectroscopy (FTIR) and the measured peak positions were found at 5.3 μm and 8.7 μm which agree well with the theoretical values obtained 5.0 μm and 9.0 μm for the two infrared bands which indicates the accuracy of the self-consistent model. The photodetectors were fabricated using a standard photolithography process with exposed middle contacts to allow separate bias and readout of signals from the three wavelength bands. The measured photoresponse gave three peaks at 0.84 μm, 5.0 μm and 8.5 μm wavelengths with approximately 0.5 A/W, 0.03 A/W and 0.13 A/W peak responsivities for NIR, MWIR and LWIR bands, respectively. This work demonstrates the possibility of detection of widely separated wavelength bands using interband and intersubband transitions in quantum wells.     

THALES long wave QWIP thermal imagers

THALES have developed for volume manufacture high performance low cost thermal imaging cameras based on the THALES Research Technology (TRT) third generation gallium arsenide long wave QWIP array. Catherine XP provides 768 × 575 CCIR video resolution and Catherine MP provides 1280 × 1024 SXGA video resolution. These compact and rugged cameras provide 24 h passive observation, detection, recognition, identification (DRI) in the 8–12 μm range, providing resistance to battlefield obscurants and solar dazzle, and are fully self contained with standard power and communication interfaces. The cameras have expansion capabilities to extend functionality (for example, automatic target detection) and have network battlefield capability. Both cameras benefit from the high quantum efficiency and freedom from low frequency noise of the TRT QWIP, allowing operation at 75 K, low integration times and non interruptive non uniformity correction. The cameras have successfully reached technology readiness level 6/7 and have commenced environmental qualification testing in order to complete the development programmes. These latest additions to the THALES Catherine family provide high performance thermal imaging at an affordable cost.     

Effects of a p–n junction on heterojunction far infrared detectors

HEterojunction Interfacial Workfunction Internal Photoemission (HEIWIP) far infrared detectors based on the GaAs/AlGaAs material system have shown promise for operation at wavelengths up to a few hundred microns. HEIWIP detectors with GaAs emitters have been shown to operate out to 92 μm. Recent modifications to use AlGaAs emitters have extended the zero response threshold out to 128 μm. Extension to longer wavelengths will require reducing the dark current in the devices. An approach using the addition of a p–n junction in the detector, which was shown to work in QWIP and homojunction detectors is considered here. Differences between the predicted and observed threshold behavior could be explained by the presence of space charge within the device. The band bending from this space charge produces the observed variation in the threshold. The space charge can also be used to explain anomalous conduction observed at low biases. When the device is forward biased, the current is expected, to be small until the bias voltage is similar to the bandgap of 1.4 eV, above which the current should increase rapidly. Dark current was observed for biases significantly less than the bandgap. The threshold bias decreased with temperature, and was as low as 0.25 V for a temperature of 300 K. This is much lower than could be explained by thermal effects alone.     

Material considerations for third generation infrared photon detectors

In the paper, issues associated with the development and exploitation of materials used in fabrication of third generation infrared photon detectors are discussed. In this class of detectors two main competitors, HgCdTe photodiodes and quantum well photoconductors are considered. The performance figures of merit of state-of-the-art HgCdTe and QWIP focal plane arrays (FPAs) are similar because the main limitations come from the readout circuits. The metallurgical issues of the epitaxial layers such as uniformity and number of defected elements are the serious problems in the case of long wavelength infrared (LWIR) and very LWIR (VLWIR) HgCdTe FPAs. It is predicted that superlattice based InAs/GaInSb system grown on GaSb substrate seems to be an alternative to HgCdTe with good spatial uniformity and an ability to span cutoff wavelength from 3 to 25 μm. In this context the material properties of type II superlattices are considered more in detail.     

The geometric pattern of a pillared substrate influences the cell-process distribution and shapes of fibroblasts

Fibroblasts alter their shape, direction of movement, cytoskeleton arrangement, and focal contact when placed upon square array pillars. We prepared pillars of 1 μm diameter, separated by 3 μm, and having 1, 5, and 10 μm heights using substrates displaying identical surface chemistry. When cells seeded initially onto the tops of the pillars, fibroblasts subsequently were immobilized in situ by several pillars that visibly protruded through, but did not pierce, the cell bodies. The cytoplasma then migrated outward with long straight lamella along the interval of the pillars and formed several discrete attachment zones at their side walls – the value of their form index (FI) was as high as 35 – which altered the cellular shape entirely. Most of the cells interacted with the pillar substrate by spreading preferentially in a particular direction, but some of them had the ability to undergo coincident two-direction (x and y) migration; right-angle turn orientations led to the growth of dramatic cellular morphologies. Interestingly, this fibroblast's behavior variation was gradually in proportion to the pillar height of substrate. Our results confirm that cellular migration and cellular shape are both strongly affected by the geometry of the growth microenvironment.     

Demonstration of 640 × 512 pixels long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) quantum dot infrared photodetector (QDIP) imaging focal plane array

We have exploited the artificial atom-like properties of epitaxially grown self-assembled quantum dots (QDs) for the development of high operating temperature long wavelength infrared (LWIR) focal plane arrays (FPAs). QD infrared photodetectors (QDIPs) are expected to outperform quantum well infrared detectors (QWIPs) and are expected to offer significant advantages over II–VI material based FPAs. We have used molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) technology to grow multi-layer LWIR dot-in-a-well (DWELL) structures based on the InAs/InGaAs/GaAs material system. This hybrid quantum dot/quantum well device offers additional control in wavelength tuning via control of dot-size and/or quantum well sizes. DWELL QDIPs were also experimentally shown to absorb both 45° and normally incident light. Thus we have employed a reflection grating structure to further enhance the quantum efficiency. The most recent devices exhibit peak responsivity out to 8.1 μm. Peak detectivity of the 8.1 μm devices has reached 1 × 10¹⁰ Jones at 77 K. Furthermore, we have fabricated the first long-wavelength 640 × 512 pixels QDIP imaging FPA. This QDIP FPA has produced excellent infrared imagery with noise equivalent temperature difference of 40 mK at 60 K operating temperature.     

Study on the p-type QWIP-LED device

A p-type quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP) integrated with a light-emitting diode (LED) (named QWIP-LED) was fabricated and studied. The infrared photo-response spectrum was obtained from the device resistance variation and the near-infrared photo-emission intensity variation. A good agreement between these two spectra was observed, which demonstrates that the long-wavelength infrared radiation around 7.5 μm has been transferred to the near-infrared light at 0.8 μm by the photo-electronic process in the QWIP-LED structure. Moreover, the experimentally observed infrared response wavelength is in good agreement with the theoretical calculation value of 7.7 μm. The results on the upconversion of the infrared radiation will be very useful for the new infrared focal plane array technology.     

Effect of finite pixel size on optical coupling in QWIPs

We study the optical coupling in quantum well photodetectors, focusing on finite size effects. We introduced a finite-element model of the detector and we show experimentally that the optical coupling efficiency is strongly dependent on the pixel size and that in very small detectors diffraction dominates the grating coupling. A 640 × 512 QWIP focal plane array was characterized to show that the optical response of thinned samples may depend on the substrate thickness noticeably. These results are in much closer agreement with predictions obtained with our model than using standard techniques.     

Study on the p-type QWIP-LED device

A p-type quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP) integrated with a light-emitting diode (LED) (named QWIP-LED) was fabricated and studied. The infrared photo-response spectrum was obtained from the device resistance variation and the near-infrared photo-emission intensity variation. A good agreement between these two spectra was observed, which demonstrates that the long-wavelength infrared radiation around 7.5 μm has been transferred to the near-infrared light at 0.8 μm by the photo-electronic process in the QWIP-LED structure. Moreover, the experimentally observed infrared response wavelength is in good agreement with the theoretical calculation value of 7.7 μm. The results on the upconversion of the infrared radiation will be very useful for the new infrared focal plane array technology.     

Research topics at Thales Research and Technology: Small pixels and third generation applications

Recent results obtained on building blocks for future third generation infrared focal plane arrays (FPAs) are presented. Our approach concerning the FPA performance assessment and small pixels modelling is exposed. We also demonstrate the ability of the quantum well infrared photodetector technology to answer the needs for compact (20 μm pitch) polarimetric FPAs. Finally, we present our first results on mid-wave infrared detectors at wavelengths below 4.2 μm.     

1024 × 1024 Format pixel co-located simultaneously readable dual-band QWIP focal plane

This paper reports the first demonstration of the megapixel-simultaneously-readable and pixel-co-registered dual-band quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP) focal plane array (FPA). The dual-band QWIP device was developed by stacking two multi-quantum-well stacks tuned to absorb two different infrared wavelengths. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the mid-wave infrared (MWIR) band extends from 4.4 to 5.1 μm and the FWHM of a long-wave infrared (LWIR) band extends from 7.8 to 8.8 μm. Dual-band QWIP detector arrays were hybridized with custom fabricated direct injection read out integrated circuits (ROICs) using the indium bump hybridization technique. The initial dual-band megapixel QWIP FPAs were cooled to 70 K operating temperature. The preliminary data taken from the first megapixel QWIP FPA has shown system NEΔT of 27 and 40 mK for MWIR and LWIR bands, respectively.