A method to quantitatively estimate rainfall rate above water surface based on different spectra shapes generated by rainfall

A method combined with the nonlinear least-square regression to quantitatively estimate rainfall rate over water surface from the different spectrum shapes generated by rainfall in some frequency bands was presented.About 2000 min spectrum data generated by rainfall have been collected in an open-lake in Xiamen city.As a result,the spectrum shape in 15-30 kHz is fitted to log-linear law which allows classification of rain into three categories from the spectrum slope:no rain,drizzle(rainfall rate>10 mm/h)and heavy rain(rainfall rate>10 mm/h).Then,rainfall detection is made and rainfall rate is quantified in drizzle time with Logistic model in the frequency bands of 2-15 kHz,and the rainfall rate in heavy rainfall also quantified with log-linear regression.Finally,all measured spectrum data are used to calculate rainfall rate with the algorithm.The results show that the estimated rainfall rates are comparably coincident with the synchronously measured ones.The average error of accumulative rainfall per min is only l%-4%.     

一种基于雨声谱形状的水面降雨强度反演方法

本文依据雨声谱的不同特征,结合最小二乘法和非线性方法,分频段使用不同的模型反演水面降雨的强度。文中首先研究雨声谱在15~30 kHz的对数线性变化规律,并利用模型中的参数值将降雨类型分为无雨、小雨(＜10 mm/h)及中雨或大雨(＞10 mm/h);其次采用S型增长模型(Logistic模型)拟合小雨时的雨声谱,获得小雨期间降雨强度的量化算法;第三,研究2~10 kHz雨声谱的对数线性规律,利用回归中的参数值获得大雨期间降雨强度的量化算法。反演精度的分析结果表明,利用本算法反演的水面降雨强度与实测的水面降雨强度比较一致,每分钟平均降雨量的误差只有1%~4%,因此,本算法可以较好地反演水面降雨的强度。      

Attenuation of Centimetre, Millimetre and Sub-Millimetre Waves Due to Rain Over Tropical Indian Stations

The results on attenuation of the radio wave due to rain at frequencies lying in the centimetre, millimetre and submillimetre wave bands for different rain rates over three Indian tropical stations are presented in this paper. The study is possible due to the availability of the rainfall rates measured by rapid response rain gauges and rain height over these stations. The results on attenuation were deduced by taking both 0° C isotherm height and effective height. The Stutzman and Dishman model with -value of 0.033 which is found suitable for the estimation of rain attenuation over the Indian stations has been critically examined in comparison with the attenuations deduced from CCIR (presently known as ITU-R) method.     

Experimental studies on the rain noise of lightweight roofs: Natural rains vs artificial rains

Rain noise is often an unpleasant problem that disturbs people’s activities significantly in buildings with lightweight roofs, however, the existing researches are all based on artificial rains in laboratory, while the characteristics of natural rain noise as well as the relationship between actual rain noise and laboratory measurements still need to be explored to fulfill practical demands. This paper first presents two experiments on natural rain noise, revealing that rain intensity is the decisive factor of natural rain noise for heavy rains, and the A-weighted sound pressure level of rain noise caused by heavy rains is proportional to the logarithm of rain intensity. Furthermore, three more experiments on the rain noise with artificial rains are carried out, indicating that differences in rain intensities, fall heights and raindrop size distributions are the factors that cause significant deviation between actual rain noise and laboratory measurements. This total deviation as well as the deviations caused by each factor are then quantified. Finally, a method to predict the actual rain noise of a certain roof using laboratory measurement results is provided, which can be useful in real projects as an effective substitute of experiments using uncontrollable real rains.     

Studies on stable isotopic composition of daily rainfall from Kozhikode,Kerala, India

The stable isotopic compositions of all major daily rain fall samples (n?=?113) collected from Kozhikode station in Kerala, India, for the year 2010 representing the pre-monsoon, southwest and northeast monsoon seasons are examined. The isotopic variations δ¹⁸O, δ²H and d-excess in daily rainfall ranged from δ¹⁸O: ?4.4 to 2?‰, δ²H: ?25.3 to 13.8?‰, and d-excess: ?2.4 to 15.3?‰; δ¹⁸O: ?9.7 to ?0.6?‰, δ²H: ?61.7 to 5.3?‰, and d-excess 5.8 to 17.4?‰; δ¹⁸O ?11.3 to ?1.4?‰, δ²H: ?75.3 to 0.9?‰, and d-excess: 8.8 to 21.3?‰ during the pre-, southwest and northeast monsoon periods, respectively. Thus, daily rainfall events during two monsoon periods had a distinct range of isotopic variations. The daily rain events within the two monsoon seasons also exhibited periodic variations. The isotopic composition of rain events during pre-monsoon and a few low-intensity events during the southwest monsoon period had imprints of secondary evaporation. This study analysing the stable isotopic characteristics of individual rain events in southern India, which is influenced by dual monsoon rainfall, will aid in a better understanding of its mechanism.     

The Prediction of Rain-Induced Attenuation in MM Wave Band by Rain Medium System Model

While the millimeter radio wave propagates through rainfall, it will be attenuated heavily due to assimilation and scattering of rain. It is imperative to establish a simple and effective model to predict the rain-induced attenuation. In this paper, the rainfall is taken as a random system that can attenuate the radio wave. The transfer function matrix model is selected to be the random system model. Using experiment rain attenuation data at different rain rate, the correlation entropy and residue error of the system is obtained by system identification method. On the basis of correlation entropy and residue error, we can determine the order of the predication system. At last, the predication model that can forecast heavy rain attenuation by small rain attenuation is gotten by applying the least square method. The comparison shows that the discrepancy between the predication result of the obtained model and the experiment rain attenuation data is relatively minor.     

System Identification Models of the Equivalent Permittivity for Rain Medium

The dielectric constant for rain medium is investigated by utilizing the system identification method. The rain rate model and frequency model of permittivity in millimeter waves band for rain medium are presented. The results obtained with models are in very good agreement with references in calculating the attenuation of electromagnetic waves induced by rain, which Shows that the obtained models are valid and practicable. The cross-polar discrimination gotten with rain rate model is in agreement with references.     

雨介质的等效介电常量模型

利用系统辨识法研究了雨介质的介电常量,分别得到了毫米波段雨介质的雨强等效介电常量模型和频率等效介电常量模型,利用模型计算雨衰减的结果与有关文献完全一致,表明所得模型实用有效;利用雨强等效介电常量模型得到的电磁波的交叉去极化与文献基本一致.     

Rain induced attenuation of millimeter waves radio link in Indian continent

The performance and reliability of millimeter wave radio link is degraded mainly by rain. In the present paper the aspect of rain induced attenuation with respect to raindrop is described. How the microstructure details of rain are necessary for estimating the rain induced attenuation in millimeter wave region are explained on the basis of the rain data for different stations of India.     

降雨对无线激光通信的影响

通过激光信号在雨介质中传输的实验发现,在大雨环境下,激光信号透射率要比在小雨或微雨的情况下大。这说明光信号在小雨时衰减较大,在大雨时衰减较小。这一现象与人们通常所认为的有所不同。针对降雨对激光信号的影响,根据Mie散射理论和Weibull雨滴尺寸分布模型,分析了不同尺寸的粒子对光的散射作用以及对衰减效率因子的影响,推导出单球粒子对光波的衰减公式,得到了衰减与降雨率的确定关系。通过数值计算发现,与小粒子相比大粒子的前向散射光强更大且更加集中;激光信号在雨介质中传输时,衰减系数在小雨时较大,中雨、大雨时较小,暴雨时不断增大。这一结果与实际情况较吻合,为激光在通信系统中的应用提供了一定的理论依据。     

基于1–10GHz空地链路信号的雨强监测方法可行性研究

空地链路上的微波信号受降雨影响, 会产生功率衰减和去极化效应. 基于这些物理特性, 本文提出利用1–10 GHz空地链路信号的降雨干扰项获取雨强的方法, 并开展了相关理论研究. 根据空地链路信号与雨滴复杂的相互作用, 研究了空地链路信号频率为1–10 GHz时, 雨强 (rain rate, R) 对衰减 (attenuation, A) 和交叉极化分辨率 (cross-polarization discrimination, XPD)的影响, 分别建立了A-R和XPD-R关系模型. 通过数值模拟, 分别分析了利用上述两个关系模型估测雨强的可行性, 并系统研究了不同频率、极化方式和仰角条件下的适用性. 研究结果表明, 对于水平极化或圆极化, 且频率较高的空地链路信号, 利用A-R关系反演强降雨具有理论上的可行性; 对于不同频率和极化方式的信号, XPD-R关系模型都可以用于反演雨强, 并且对于1–50 mm·h^-1范围内的雨强, XPD较为敏感; 不同仰角条件下, A-R和XPD-R 模型都适用. 在4–10 GHz时, 本文的XPD-R模型和国际电信联盟ITU-R中XPD预测模型的结果非常接近. 所得出的结论对于下一步开展相关的验证实验, 拓展卫星系统的气象应用, 实时估测降雨强度, 实现全球降雨观测具有重要的参考价值. 关键词： 空地链路信号 雨强 衰减特性 交叉极化分辨率(XPD)     

基于前向近红外散射光谱测量雾和雨天大气消光的应用研究

在可见和近红外区,由于大气的吸收作用忽略不计,大气消光由散射决定,主要贡献来自于雾滴、雨滴、其他形式降水和小粒子。基于前向近红外散射光谱的前向散射式能见度仪(FVM)采用近红外的LED光源照射到约100 mL的空气体积上,并测量前向30°～36°范围内的粒子的散射光强。由于该前向角范围内,雾滴和霾粒子的散射相函数不受粒子尺寸分布的影响,经过波长校正后,散射强度与大气消光系数成正比,该散射消光比通过对比标准人工观测值获得。然而,在把雾和霾的散射消光比应用到雨天测量时,会产生难以接受的误差。要得到雨天消光的准确测量,就需要找到适合雨滴的散射消光比。基于Mie散射理论计算了不同尺寸分布下的雾滴和雨滴的散射相函数,并对雾天和雨天下FVM的测量值与人工实际观测值进行了对比分析,发现FVM在雨天的消光要比人工观测值高出约20%～60%。根据测量结果,可以定出FVM在雨天测量的校准系数,因此,基于前向近红外散射光谱的FVM不仅能够测量雾天的大气消光,还能对雨天的消光进行较准确的估算     

Correlation of millimeter-band radio-wave attenuation in cloud and rain parts of cloud-rain system

The experimentally detected difference by a factor of two or more of the autocorrelation times of millimeter-wave attenuation in the rain and cloud parts of a cloud-rain system is examined. In cases of moderate to heavy rain, the measured autocorrelation time of millimeter-wave attenuation in the cloud part of the system is greater by a factor of two than that in the rain for a given degree of cloudiness. In the case of drizzle, the measured relationship is inverted: the attenuation autocorrelation time in the rain part exceeds that in the cloud part by a factor of two. Specific realizations are used; the problem of estimation of the average correlation-time relationships, which is required for prolonged measurement periods, is not posed; nevertheless, the need for its formulation follows from the results considered here. The physical meaning of the results is that the horizontal spatial heterogeneities of moderate to heavy rain are smaller than those of drizzle and greater than those of the clouds from which the given rain falls.Scientific-Research Radio-Physics Institute. Translated from Izvestiya Vysshikh Uchebnykh Zavedenii, Radiofizika, Vol. 36, No. 3–4, pp. 231–239, March–April, 1993.     

The main results of cloud and rain remote sensing by multichannel microwave radiometry

The basic results have been considered for multiwave remote sounding of the troposphere with clouds and rain from ground-based station in the zenith direction. The radio wave scattering by rain drops as well as variation of vapour content in the atmosphere during measurements are taken into account when processing of the experimental data. A separation of the complete attenuation in clouds with rain has been made over three components: due to vapour, cloud and rain. A relation is considered of millimeter and centimeter wave attenuation in clouds with rain between each other and with the rain intensity. A behaviour of the relation of attenuation structural functions is explained. The Diagnostic problems of millimeter wave attenuation are considered.     

Removal of rain in video based on motion and shape characteristics of raindrops

Rain degrades the performance of the outdoor computer vision system, which adversely impacts tracking, object detection and recognition. To solve this problem, a novel rain detection and removal method is proposed in this paper. Firstly, raindrops are considered as the motion component and extracted by FastICA algorithm. Secondly, raindrops are identified based on its properties of area, direction and width. Finally, a two-step removal method is proposed to replace pixels covered by rain with estimated background pixels. Experimental results show that the algorithm can effectively remove the raindrops in various videos. Compared with traditional rain removal methods, it does not require any parameters about rain, camera and scenes, and only needs three successive frames to recover a raindrops free video.     

The Effect of the Wind Speed on the Thermal Blooming of a Laser Beam Propagating in the Rain

In this paper, we investigate the effect of the wind speed on the thermal blooming of a laser beam propagating in the rain. In view of simulations, we obtain the contour distribution of the laser beam and calculate the change in air density by changing the wind speed for different rain rates. We find that with increase in the rain rate, the effect of the wind speed on the thermal blooming enhances.     

基于微波链路的路径雨强反演方法及实验研究

从大气气体吸收衰减模型出发, 基于微波雨衰特性和雨滴谱统计资料建立了微波链路降雨有效衰减的修正模型和视距微波链路的降雨反演模型. 设计并搭建一条视距微波链路测雨实验系统, 利用降雨反演模型反演了路径平均降雨强度, 并与雨滴谱仪进行了同步对比. 观测结果表明, 视距微波链路降雨反演模型的反演雨强与雨滴谱仪测量结果的相关系数大多高于0.6, 最高可达0.9647; 累积降雨量的绝对误差大多在0.5 mm以内, 最小偏差仅有0.0827 mm; 相对偏差大部分在15%以内, 最小相对误差为3.3415%. 实验结果验证了微波链路反演降雨的有效性和准确性.     

Rain Attenuation Ratios on Short Microwave and Millimeter Wave Bands Earth-Space Paths

The knowledge of the ratio of rain attenuation at one frequency to that at another on slant paths is useful for the design of satellite-to-Earth communication links and up-link power control systems. It is well known that the rain attenuation is influenced by parameters of precipitation along the slant path such as DSD (raindrop size distribution), raindrop temperature, rainfall rate, and so on. In this paper, based on several DSDs applied to various climate zones, at short microwave and long millimeter wave bands, the attenuation ratios are estimated on Earth-space paths. A comparison of the prediction results with the experiment data in Boston and Kashima areas is carried out. It is shown that the M-P and Weibull DSD applied to rain attenuation ratios estimation are better DSD at higher latitude regions. The Guangzhou DSD applied to rain attenuation ratios prediction is better in tropical and subtropical areas in China. The lognormal DSD may be a appropriate DSD applied to predict rain attenuation ratios in tropical areas at A_down>1dB or R>15mm/h. However, the attenuation ratios predicted by the Guangzhou DSD disagree with by the lognormal DSD, it requires that the DSD applied to predict rain attenuation ratios are further studied in tropical areas.     

Millimeter wave propagation in aridland: The effect of rain and sand storms

Reliability analysis of millimetric wave propagation in airdland is presented. Based on long term rain data and sand storm record in Riyadh, the paper estimates the outage due to individual effects. The total outage due to rain and sand is then derived under various storm conditions. It is particularly shown that rain and sand storms may have comparable effects on link reliability for typical storms. For adverse storm conditions marked by large and wet particles, rain will have less effect on system reliability compared to sand storms.     

Rain Rate Statistics and Fade Distribution of Millimeter Waves in Indian Continents

For any communication service operating in the Microwave/ Millimeter wave region, statistical information characterising the attenuation due to rain along satellite slant path would be required for the design of satellite communication links and for the broadcasting network above 20 Ghz. It is necessary to have a prior knowledge of the probability of exceeding different levels of rain attenuation in order to design appropriate fade margins into systems and establishing estimates of the year to year variability of rain fade margin for particular geographic regions of India so that the communication system reflects the extremes of these variabilities. Direct measurement of beacon signals from geostationary satellites have been a mean to determine the above information and experiments can be pursued with satellite such as INSAT. [1]Attenuatiuon of Millimeter Waves by rainfall restricts the path length of a communication system. A knowledge of the rain attenuation at such frequencies is therefore desirable in designing a reliable communication system. Signal level fading over line-of-sight links strongly depends on the hop length, frequency and climate. For short hops, the probability of occurance of deep fades becomes diminishingly small. However, since an extended hop length is possible for regions with little rain activity, clear weather fading can affect the link reliability in a similar way ti a rain.[2]