304不锈钢室温和高温单轴循环塑性的实验研究

对304不锈钢进行了室温和高温单轴应变控制和应力控制下的系统循环试验。揭示和分析了循环应变幅值、平均应变及其历史和温度历史对材料应变循环特性的影响以及应力幅值、平均应力及其历史以及温度对循环棘轮行为的影响。也讨论了应变循环和应力循环间交互作用对材料循环塑性行为的影响。研究表明,无益单轴应变循环特性还是非对称单轴应力循环下的棘轮效应不仅取决于当前温度和加载状态,而且强烈依赖于其加载历史。研究得到了一些有助于304不锈钢室温和高温单轴循环行为本构描述的结果。     

考虑塑性应变记忆恢复的循环棘轮本构模型研究

在统一粘塑性循环本构理论框架下,以Ohno-Abdel-Karim非线性随动硬化模型为基础,建立了一个循环本构模型。模型通过引入塑性应变幅值记忆效应,并在塑性应变记忆项中加入恢复系数,提高了对循环硬化材料单轴棘轮行为的预言能力。将模型应用于316L不锈钢单轴棘轮行为的描述中,模拟不同平均应力、应力幅值下的棘轮应变,均与实验数据吻合较好,证明本文改进的本构模型能合理地描述循环硬化材料的单轴棘轮行为。     

SS304不锈钢高温非比例多轴循环变形行为的粘塑性本构描述

在350℃和700℃下SS304不锈钢的非比例多轴循环变形行为进行了系统的实验研究。在此基础上,在统一粘塑性本构理论的框架下改进和发展了一个新的循环本构模型。该模型给出了新的背应力演化方程,引入了非比例度参量,考虑了温度效应和最大塑性应变幅值记忆效应,能够对材料的高温非比例多轴应变循环变形行为和棘轮行为进行统一描述。模型的模拟结果与实验结果比较表明:该模型对SS304不锈钢高温非比例多轴循环变形行为的描述比较合理。     

对316L不锈钢的非比例循环粘塑性本构描述

对循环硬化的３１６Ｌ不锈钢提出了一个考虑非比例循环加载下流动和硬化特性的粘塑性本构模型。模型中，通过随动硬化的背应力演化以各向同性阻力演化非比例循环路径及其历史的依赖关系来表征材料的非比例循环附加硬化和非比例循环流动特性，将模型用于预测３１６Ｌ不锈钢的圆形，正菱形应变路径的复杂循环变形行为，其预言结果与实验结果吻合很好。     

非等温条件下非比例循环粘塑性本构描述

为了描述在非等温非比例循环加载下的循环变形行为，本文提出了一个考虑材料非比例循环附加硬化效应、非比例循环加载历史效应和温度历史效应的粘塑性本构模型．在该模型中，引入了具有三种不同演化速率的背应力演化方程；定义了新的非比例度；为了反映非比例循环历史和温度历史的影响，引入了表现各向同性变形阻力Ｑａｓｍ，并对各向同性的表现变形阻力引入了具有先前加载历史记忆的演化方程．将本文模型用于１Ｃｒ１８Ｎｉ９Ｔｉ不锈钢高温循环变形行为描述，其预言结果与实验结果吻合得很好．     

奥氏体不锈钢高温循环棘轮行为的实验研究

对两种不锈钢材料（316L和304）进行了高温应力控制下的系统循环试验。对该类材料在应力循环下的平均应力、应力幅值及其历史对循环蠕变（棘轮效应）的影响进行了分析,同时也分析了环境温度的变化以及先前应变循环对后继应力循环的棘轮行为的影响。研究表明,两种不锈钢材料在高温非对称循环下的单轴棘轮行为基本相同,不但依赖于当前温度和加载状态,而且还依赖于先前加载历史。研究得到了不锈钢材料高温单轴循环棘轮行为的一些有意义的结果。     

循环软化45碳钢和循环硬化304不锈钢的棘轮行为实验研究

对循环软化45碳钢的单轴应力循环下的平均应力、应力幅值以及先前应变循环对棘轮效应的影响进行了实验研究;并对循环硬化的304不锈钢进行了多种非比例循环加载路径下路径形状、路径等效应力幅值、平均应变与平均应力对材料棘轮变形行为的影响实验．发现平均应力和应力幅值及其历史对于材料的棘轮行为都有很大的影响．     

一个考虑循环应变幅值历史效应的粘塑性本构模型

本文提出了一个考虑材料应变幅值历史效应的粘塑性本构模型。在该模型中，引入了三个具有不同演化速率的背应力演化方程；建立了非弹性应变幅值历史记忆模型，对各向同性变形阻力，引入了具有先前加载历史记忆的演化方程。将本文模型用于１Ｃｒ１８Ｎｉ９Ｔｉ不锈钢循环变形行为描述中，其预言结果与实验结果吻合得很好，表明该模型能很好地描述材料的循环应变幅值历史下的循环变形行为。     

超弹性镍钛形状记忆合金单轴相变棘轮行为的宏观唯象本构模型

超弹性镍钛形状记忆合金因其良好的力学性能以及独特的超弹性和形状记忆效应已广泛应用于土木工程、航空航天和生物医疗等多个领域,在实际服役环境中超弹性镍钛合金元件不可避免地会承受不同应力水平的循环载荷作用,亟待建立描述相变棘轮行为(即峰值应变和谷值应变随着正相变和逆相变循环的进行不断累积)的循环本构模型.为此,基于已有的超弹性镍钛形状记忆合金在不同峰值应力下的单轴相变棘轮行为实验研究结果,在广义黏塑性框架下,对Graesser等提出的通过背应力非线性演化方程反映超弹性镍钛形状记忆合金超弹性行为的一维宏观唯像本构模型进行了拓展,考虑了正相变和逆相变过程中特征变量的差异及其随循环的演化,以非弹性应变的累积量为内变量引入了正相变开始应力、逆相变开始应力、相变应变和残余应变的演化方程,同时通过峰值应力与正相变完成应力的比值来确定演化方程中的相关系数,建立了描述超弹性镍钛合金单轴相变棘轮行为的本构模型.将模拟结果与对应的实验结果进行对比发现,建立的宏观唯像本构模型能够合理地描述超弹性镍钛形状记忆合金的单轴相变棘轮行为及其峰值应力依赖性,模型的预测结果和实验结果吻合得很好.     

1Cr18Ni9Ti不锈钢多轴非比例棘轮行为及其影响因素研究

对１Ｃｒ１８Ｎｉ９Ｔｉ不锈钢材料进行了两种不同加载路径的多轴非比例应力循环棘轮效应试验，研究了应力路径形状、平均应力及其历史对棘轮效应的影响，揭示了些材料多轴非比例棘轮效应的一些特征及其原因。为建立能较为精确地估计材料在多非比例应力循环下的累积变形的本构模型提供了一定的实验和理论分析的依据。     

Uniaxial ratcheting of SS304 stainless steel at high temperatures: visco-plastic constitutive model

The uniaxial ratcheting of SS304 stainless steel at high temperatures (300, 600 and 700 °C) were analyzed experimentally, and described by a cyclic constitutive visco-plasticity model. The rate dependence of the material was accounted for by introducing a viscous term. The cyclic hardening and cyclic flow behavior of the material under asymmetrical stress-controlled cycling were described by the evolution rules of kinematic hardening back stress and isotropic deforming resistance. Under the isothermal condition, temperature effect was included by terms involving temperature in the evolution equations of isotropic deforming resistance. The effect of load history on ratcheting was also considered by introducing a fading memory function of the maximum inelastic strain amplitude and isotropic deformation resistance. After the material constants were determined from the experimental data, the uniaxial ratcheting of SS304 stainless steel was numerically simulated and compared with the corresponding experimental results at high temperatures. The predicted results agree well with the experimental ones.     

Uniaxial ratcheting and failure behaviors of two steels

The strain cyclic characteristics, ratcheting and failure behaviors of 25CDV4.11 steel and SS304 stainless steel were experimentally studied under uniaxial cyclic tests and at room temperature. The cyclic hardening/softening features of the materials were first observed under uniaxial strain cycling; and then the ratcheting and failure behaviors of the materials were researched in detail under cyclic stressing. The effects of stress amplitude and mean stress on the ratcheting and failure were discussed under uniaxial asymmetrical stress cycling. It is concluded that the ratcheting and failure behaviors of the materials depend greatly on the cyclic softening/hardening features of the materials and the stress values of cyclic loading. Some conclusions useful to understand the fatigue failure of the materials presented under asymmetrical cyclic stressing are obtained.     

Uniaxial and non-proportionally multiaxial ratcheting of SS304 stainless steel at room temperature: experiments and simulations

The uniaxial and non-proportionally multiaxial ratcheting behaviors of SS304 stainless steel at room temperature were initially researched by experiment and then were theoretically described by a cyclic constitutive model in the framework of unified visco-plasticity. The effects of cyclic stress amplitude, mean stress, and their histories on the ratcheting were experimentally investigated under uniaxial and different multiaxial loading paths. The shapes of non-proportional loading paths were linear, circular, elliptical and rhombic, respectively. In the constitutive model, the rate-dependent behavior of the material was reflected by a viscous term; the cyclic flow and cyclic hardening behaviors of the material under asymmetrical stress-controlled cycling were reflected by the evolution rules of kinematic hardening back stress and isotropic deforming resistance, respectively. The effect of loading history on the ratcheting was also considered by introducing two fading memorization functions for maximum inelastic strain amplitude and isotropic deformation resistance, respectively, into the constitutive model. The effect of multiaxial loading path on the ratcheting was reflected by a non-proportional factor defined in this work. The predicting ability of the developed model was proved to be good by comparing the simulations with corresponding experiments.     

Ratcheting of cyclically hardening and softening materials: II. Multiaxial behavior

Part II of this study is concerned with ratcheting phenomena of cyclically hardening and softening materials under biaxial, cyclic loading. Two sets of biaxial experiments were performed on carbon steel 1018 and stainless steel 304 thin-walled tubes. In the first tyoe of experiment, a constant internal pressure was prescribed while the tubes were cycled axially in a strain-symmetric fashion. This causes ratcheting in the circumferential direction. In the second type of experiment, the axial cycling was carried out under stress control. This loading history results in simultaneous ratcheting in the axial and circumferential directions. In the case of stainless steel 304, the nonproportionality of these loading histories was found to induce significant hardening in addition to that recorded in unaxial loading. Cyclic hardening was found to reduce the rate of ratcheting. In the case of carbon steel 1018, the nonproportionality of the loading paths was found not to influence the induced softening. Cyclic softening in the axial and circumferential directions were found to be uncoupled.The time-independent cyclic plasticity models developed in Part I, suitably extended to multiaxial loading, were used to simulate the biaxial ratcheting experiments. Two methods for modeling the additional hardening/softening of the material due to nonproportional loading, developed by previous investigators, were incorporated in the models. The prediction of circumferential ratcheting is shown again to be sensitive to the kinematic hardening rule of the yield surface incorporated in the models. The performance of the models in predicting the biaxial ratcheting results was found to be rather poor. Several reasons for this poor performance are identified and suggestions for future improvements are made.     

Cyclic plastic deformation and cyclic hardening/softening behavior in 304LN stainless steel

Low cycle fatigue experiments have been conducted on 304LN stainless steel in ambient air at room temperature. Uniaxial ratcheting behavior has also been studied on this material and in both engineering and true stress controlling modes. It is shown that material’s cyclic hardening/softening behavior in low cycle fatigue and in ratcheting is dependent not only on material but also on the loading condition. Improvement of ratcheting life and mean stress dependent hardening are observed in the presence of mean stress. A method based on the strain energy density (SED) is used to represent cyclic hardening/softening behavior of the material in this work. The decrease of SED with cycles is an indication that the life in low cycle fatigue and in ratcheting is improved. The SED represents the area of the hysteresis loops.     

Influence of non-proportional loading on ratcheting responses and simulations by two recent cyclic plasticity models

Aubin and her coworkers conducted a unique set of experiments demonstrating the influence of loading non-proportionality on ratcheting responses of duplex stainless steel. In order to further explore their new observation, a set of experiments was conducted on stainless steel (SS) 304L under various biaxial stress-controlled non-proportional histories. This new set of data reiterated Aubin and her coworkers’ observation and illustrated many new responses critical to model development and validation. Two recent and different classes of cyclic plasticity models, the modified Chaboche model proposed by Bari and Hassan and the version of the multi-mechanism model proposed by Taleb and Cailletaud, are evaluated in terms of their simulations of the SS304L non-proportional ratcheting responses. A modeling scheme for non-proportional ratcheting responses using the kinematic hardening rule parameters in addition to the conventionally used isotropic hardening rule parameter (yield surface size change) in the modified Chaboche model is evaluated. Strengths and weaknesses of the models in simulating the non-proportional ratcheting responses are identified. Further improvements of these models needed for improving the non-proportional ratcheting simulations are suggested in the paper.     

Ratcheting of cyclically hardening and softening materials: I. Uniaxial behavior

The phenomenon of ratcheting of materials cyclically loaded in the plastic range is studied through combined experimental and analytical efforts (ratcheting here describes the cyclic accumulation of deformation). In particular the work seeks to illustrate how cyclic hardening and softening influence ratcheting. To this end, systematic sets of experiments were performed on stainless steel 304 and carbon steel 1018 which, respectively, exhibit cyclic hardening and softening. Due to the wide variety of behavior observed, and to better illustrate the modelling challenges, the results are divided into uniaxial and multiaxial behavior, and are presented in Parts I and II, respectively. In Part I, the results from a series of uniaxial stress-controlled experiments are presented, which illustrate the parametric dependence of ratcheting in the two materials examined. Results from a set of auxiliary strain-controlled experiments required for quantifying the cyclic hardening and softening characteristics of the materials are also presented. In a preceding publication, the authors demonstrated that ratcheting in cyclically stable materials could be simulated with consistent accuracy by allowing the bounds of the two-surface model of Dafalias-Popov to translate in the direction of ratcheting at the rate of ratcheting. This modified model, coupled with previously developed schemes for simulating cyclic hardening in strain-controlled cycling, are used to simulate the experimental results developed. Strengths, weaknesses and plausible alternatives are critically presented. The results are quite promising.     

Multiaxial cyclic deformation and non-proportional hardening employing discriminating load paths

Some novel discriminating multiaxial cyclic strain paths with incremental and random sequences were used to investigate cyclic deformation behavior of materials with low and high sensitivity to non-proportional loadings. Tubular specimens made of 1050 QT steel with no non-proportional hardening and 304L stainless steel with significant non-proportional hardening were used. 1050 QT steel was found to exhibit very similar behavior under various multiaxial loading paths, whereas significant effects of loading sequence were observed for 304L stainless steel. In-phase cycles with a random sequence of axial-torsion cycles on an equivalent strain circle were found to cause cyclic hardening levels similar to 90° out-of-phase loading of 304L stainless steel. In contrast, straining with a small increment of axial-torsion on an equivalent strain circle results in higher stress than for in-phase loading of 304L stainless steel, but the level of hardening is lower than for 90° out-of-phase loading. Tanaka’s non-proportionality parameter coupled with a Armstrong–Fredrick incremental plasticity model, and Kanazawa et al.’s empirical formulation as a representative of such empirical models were used to predict the stabilized stress response of the two materials under variable amplitude axial-torsion strain paths. Consistent results between experimental observations and predictions were obtained by employing the Tanaka’s non-proportionality parameter. In contrast, the empirical model resulted in significant over-prediction of stresses for 304L stainless steel.