DENSE: displacement encoding with stimulated echoes in cardiac functional MRI

Displacement encoding with stimulated echoes (DENSE) was developed for high-resolution myocardial displacement mapping. Pixel phase is modulated by myocardial displacement and data spatial resolution is limited only by pixel size. 2D displacement vector maps were generated for the systolic action in canines with 0.94 x 1.9 mm nominal in-plane resolution and 2.3 mm/pi displacement encoding. A radial strain of 0.208 was measured across the free left ventricular wall over 105 ms during systole. DENSE displacement maps require small first-order gradient moments for encoding. DENSE magnitude images exhibit black-blood contrast which allows for better myocardial definition and reduced motion-related artifacts.     

Efficient cardiac diffusion tensor MRI by three-dimensional reconstruction of solenoidal tensor fields

Tensor tomography is being investigated as a technique for reconstruction of in vivo diffusion tensor fields that can potentially be used to reduce the number of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measurements. Specifically, assessments are being made of the reconstruction of cardiac diffusion tensor fields from 3D Radon planar projections using a filtered backprojection algorithm in order to specify the helical fiber structure of myocardial tissue. Helmholtz type decomposition is proposed for 3D second order tensor fields. Using this decomposition a Fourier projection theorem is formulated in terms of the solenoidal and irrotational components of the tensor field. From the Fourier projection theorem, two sets of Radon directional measurements, one that reconstructs the solenoidal component and one that reconstructs the irrotational component of the tensor field, are prescribed. Based on these observations filtered backprojection reconstruction formulae are given for the reconstruction of a 3D second order tensor field and its solenoidal and irrotational components from Radon projection measurements. Computer simulations demonstrate the validity of the mathematical formulations and demonstrate that a realistic model of the helical fiber structure of the myocardial tissue specifies a diffusion tensor field for which the first principal vector (the vector associated with the maximum eigenvalue) of the solenoidal component accurately approximates the first principal vector of the diffusion tensor. A priori knowledge of this allows the orientation of the myocardial fiber structure to be specified utilizing one half of the number of MRI measurements of a normal diffusion tensor field study.     

Determination of displacement distributions in bolted steel tension elements using digital image techniques

Digital imaging methods have found a great interest in various engineering fields to study stress-deformation characteristics of materials. Recent enhancements in visual instrumentation with the availability of cost-effective hardware and software products make the digital imaging techniques a viable tool to replace direct strain or displacement measurement methods in engineering applications. In this study, deformation characteristics of bolted steel connections are investigated by calculating in-plane displacement distributions using digital image correlation method (DIC). Validation of the method is presented by comparing the strains measured in standard tension specimens using electrical resistance strain gages and the DIC method. Finite element analysis of the connection specimen is also performed to compare the in-plane displacement distributions calculated from both methods. Results from the validation process indicate that the strains obtained from the DIC method compare well with the results of strain gages. The findings also indicate that the displacement distributions calculated from the finite element method may differ from those of the DIC method in terms of distribution pattern, and the location and magnitude of the extreme values of displacements. It is suggested that the proposed method can be used to determine the in-plane displacement distributions for the bolted connections, hence to evaluate their deformation characteristics under loading.     

磁共振弹性成像技术在肝纤维化检测中的研究

对肝脏组织的弹性应力分析在肝纤维化程度的精确定量评价方面是非常关键的,因此从弹性力学角度结合磁共振成像技术的磁共振弹性成像研究在肝脏疾病的早期诊断和治疗方面将具有重要意义和广泛应用. 该文针对弹性磁共振成像技术的理论与技术进行了全面的研究,开发了磁共振弹性图研究平台,主要包括：组织生物力学模型分析与建模,剪切波激励装置的开发,弹性成像序列的设计,弹性拟合算法研究与实现4个方面的工作. 基于上述工作,进行了相关体模和离体猪肝以及志愿者在体肝脏实验,实验结果表明,研究平台基本可以满足肝脏弹性成像研究的需要.     

A 2D strain estimator with numerical optimization method for soft-tissue elastography

Elastography is a bioelasticity-based imaging modality which has been proved to be a potential evaluation tool to detect the tissue abnormalities. Conventional method for elastography is to estimate the displacement based on cross-correlation technique firstly, then strain profile is calculated as the gradient of the displacement. The main problem of this method arises from the fact that the cross-correlation between pre- and post-compression signals will be decreased because of the signal’s compression-to-deformation. It may constrain the estimation of the displacement. Numerical optimization, as an efficient tool to estimate the non-rigid deformation in image registration, has its potential to achieve the elastogram. This paper incorporates the idea of image registration into elastography and proposes a radio frenquency (RF) signal registration strain estimator based on the minimization of a cost function using numerical optimization method with Powell algorithm (NOMPA). To evaluate the proposed scheme, the simulation data with a hard inclusion embedded in the homogeneous background is produced for analysis. NOMPA can obtain the displacement profiles and strain profiles simultaneously. When compared with the cross-correlation based method, NOMPA presents better signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, 32.6 ± 1.5 dB vs. 23.8 ± 1.1 dB) and contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR, 28.8 ± 1.8 dB vs. 21.7 ± 0.9 dB) in axial normal strain estimation. The in vitro experiment of porcine liver with ethanol-induced lesion is also studied. The statistic results of SNR and CNR indicate that strain profiles by NOMPA performs better anti-noise and target detectability than that by cross-correlation based method. Though NOMPA carry a heavier computational burden than cross-correlation based method, it may be an useful method to obtain 2D strains in elastography.     

Radiofrequency electrode vibration-induced shear wave imaging for tissue modulus estimation: a simulation study

Quasi-static electrode displacement elastography, used for in-vivo imaging of radiofrequency ablation-induced lesions in abdominal organs such as the liver and kidney, is extended in this paper to dynamic vibrational perturbations of the ablation electrode. Propagation of the resulting shear waves into adjoining regions of tissue can be tracked and the shear wave velocity used to quantify the shear (and thereby Young's) modulus of tissue. The algorithm used utilizes the time-to-peak displacement data (obtained from finite element analyses) to calculate the speed of shear wave propagation in the material. The simulation results presented illustrate the feasibility of estimating the Young's modulus of tissue and is promising for characterizing the stiffness of radiofrequency-ablated thermal lesions and surrounding normal tissue.     

Vibration analysis of laminated cross-ply oval cylindrical shells

Here, free vibrations and transient dynamic response analyses of laminated cross-ply oval cylindrical shells are carried out. The formulation is based on higher order theory that accounts for the transverse shear and the transverse normal deformations, and includes zig-zag variation in the in-plane displacements across the thickness of the multi-layered shells. The contributions of inertia effect due to in-plane and rotary motions, and the higher order function arising from the assumed displacement models are included. The governing equations obtained using Lagrangian equations of motion are solved through finite element approach. A detailed parametric study is conducted to bring out the influence of different shell geometry, ovality parameter, lay-up and loading environment on the vibration characteristics related to different modes of vibrations of oval shell.     

MRI analysis of right ventricular function in normal and spontaneously hypertensive rats

Right ventricular structure and function were characterized in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) using non-invasive magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques. These studies therefore complement previous reports preoccupied with left ventricular changes associated with this condition. Eight SHR and eight control normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats were each subdivided into equal age-matched groups of 8 and 12 weeks. The right ventricle was imaged through a series of twelve contiguous 1.37–1.75 mm transverse sections at twelve equally spaced time-points that covered both systole and most of diastole thereby completely reconstructing right ventricular anatomy. This gave measurements of right ventricular myocardial mass that were consistent through all twelve time-points in all four experimental groups throughout their cardiac cycles. However, spontaneous hypertension increased this right ventricular myocardial mass, as well as the end-diastolic (EDV) and end-systolic volumes (ESV). Although stroke volume (SV) was conserved, decreases in ejection fraction (EF), a positive shift in the relationship between SV and EDV, and reduced indices of systolic ejection rates in SHR rats compared with the age-matched normal WKY controls indicated significant systolic dysfunction. Additionally, reductions in the rates of diastolic relaxation suggested the onset of diastolic dysfunction. Thus, the non-invasive nature of MRI has made it possible for the first time to demonstrate alterations in structure of the right ventricle and in quantitative indicators of its systolic and diastolic function in the SHR model of hypertension.     

Transmission loss of periodically stiffened laminate composite panels: shear deformation and in-plane interaction effects

This paper investigates the transmission loss of symmetric and asymmetric laminate composite panels periodically reinforced by composite stiffeners. A comprehensive model based on periodic structure theory is developed. First order shear deformation theory is used and the coupling of the in-plane motion of the panel with its out-of-plane motion is taken into account. Stiffeners interact with the panel through three forces (two in-plane, one out-of-plane) and a torsion moment. Three types of cross sections are investigated for the composite stiffeners: I-shaped, C-shaped, and omega-shaped cross-sections. The model is validated numerically by comparison with the finite element/boundary element method. Experimental validations are also conducted. In both cases, excellent agreement is obtained. Numerical results show that the in-plane coupling effect is increased by increasing the panel thickness and the stiffener's eccentricity. The in-plane coupling effect is also found to increase with frequency.     

荧光光谱成像技术结合主成分分析与Fisher判别快速鉴别肉苁蓉

为探究一种快速、可靠的肉苁蓉属中药材检测方法,实验采用荧光光谱成像技术结合模式识别方法对肉苁蓉属三种中药材：荒漠肉苁蓉、管花肉苁蓉和沙苁蓉进行鉴别研究。实验中发现肉苁蓉样品存在较显著的荧光特性,采集来自不同产地、不同批次以及不同超市购买的三种肉苁蓉属药材的40个样品的荧光光谱图像,对图像进行去噪、二值化处理后,根据光谱立方体绘制每个样本的光谱曲线,将所得450～680 nm波段范围内的光谱数据作为鉴别分析的研究对象,应用主成分分析法(PCA)对三种肉苁蓉的光谱数据进行降维处理,再结合Fisher判别方法对三种肉苁蓉进行鉴别。分别比较多元散射校正(MSC)、标准正态变量校正变换(SNV)以及一阶微分(FD)三种数据预处理方法对鉴别模型的影响,并根据主成分的累积贡献率和主成分因子数对判别模型效果的影响对主成分因子数进行优化。分析结果表明：一阶微分预处理后提取前四个主成分进行Fisher判别的鉴别效果最佳,PCA结合Fisher判别建立肉苁蓉属三种药材的判别模型原始判别的准确率达到100%,交叉验证的准确率达到95%。由此可见,利用荧光光谱成像技术结合主成分分析及Fisher判别对肉苁蓉属三种药材的鉴别分析是可行的,而且具有操作简便、快速、可靠等优点。     

AIR-SPAMM: alternative inversion recovery spatial modulation of magnetization for myocardial tagging

Alternate inversion recovery spatial modulation of magnetization (AIR-SPAMM) can be used either for doubling the number of tags for a given tagging encoding gradient strength or for improving tagging contrast ratio. AIR-SPAMM requires only a single acquisition and utilizes inversion pulses spaced throughout the gradient recalled echo (GRE) cine acquisition to "lock" the recovering magnetization at a desired level. The theory of AIR-SPAMM is presented along with simulations and results from phantoms. AIR-SPAMM can be used either for imaging systole as demonstrated by initial in vivo results or potentially for imaging the entire cardiac cycle in a slice-interleaved manner.     

A damping mechanics model and a beam finite element for the free-vibration of laminated composite strips under in-plane loading

A theoretical framework is presented for predicting the nonlinear damping and damped vibration of laminated composite strips due to large in-plane forces. Nonlinear Green-Lagrange axial strains are introduced in the governing equations of a viscoelastic composite and new nonlinear damping and stiffness matrices are formulated including initial stress effects. Building upon the nonlinear laminate mechanics, a damped beam finite element is developed. Finite element stiffness and damping matrices are synthesized and the static equilibrium is predicted using a Newton-Raphson solver. The corresponding linearized damped free-vibration response is predicted and modal frequencies and damping of the in-plane deflected strip are calculated. Numerical results quantify the nonlinear effect of in-plane loads on structural modal damping of various laminated composite strips. The modal loss-factors and natural frequencies of cross-ply Glass/Epoxy beams subject to in-plane loading are measured and correlated with numerical results.     

Single-step scanner-based digital image correlation (SB-DIC) method for large deformation mapping in rubber

The incremental digital image correlation (DIC) method has been applied in the past to determine strain in large deformation materials like rubber. This method is, however, prone to cumulative errors since the total displacement is determined by combining the displacements in numerous stages of the deformation. In this work, a method of mapping large strains in rubber using DIC in a single-step without the need for a series of deformation images is proposed. The reference subsets were deformed using deformation factors obtained from the fitted mean stress-axial stretch ratio curve obtained experimentally and the theoretical Poisson function. The deformed reference subsets were then correlated with the deformed image after loading. The recently developed scanner-based digital image correlation (SB-DIC) method was applied on dumbbell rubber specimens to obtain the in-plane displacement fields up to 350% axial strain. Comparison of the mean axial strains determined from the single-step SB-DIC method with those from the incremental SB-DIC method showed an average difference of 4.7%. Two rectangular rubber specimens containing circular and square holes were deformed and analysed using the proposed method. The resultant strain maps from the single-step SB-DIC method were compared with the results of finite element modeling (FEM). The comparison shows that the proposed single-step SB-DIC method can be used to map the strain distribution accurately in large deformation materials like rubber at much shorter time compared to the incremental DIC method.     

Ultrasonic elastography using sector scan imaging and a radial compression

Elastography is an imaging technique based on strain estimation in soft tissues under quasi-static compression. The stress is usually created by a compression plate, and the target is imaged by an ultrasonic linear array. This configuration is used for breast elastography, and has been investigated both theoretically and experimentally. Phenomena such as strain decay with tissue depth and strain concentrations have been reported. However in some in vivo situations, like prostate or blood vessels imaging, this set-up cannot be used. We propose a device to acquire in vivo elastograms of the prostate. The compression is applied by inflating a balloon that covers a transrectal sector probe. The 1D algorithm used to calculate the radial strain fails if the center of the imaging probe does not correspond to the center of the compressor. Therefore, experimental elastograms are calculated with a 2D algorithm that accounts for tangential displacements of the tissue. In this article, in order to gain a better understanding of the image formation process, the use of ultrasonic sector scans to image the radial compression of a target is investigated. Elastograms of homogeneous phantoms are presented, and compared with simulated images. Both show a strain decay with tissue depth. Then experimental and simulated elastograms of a phantom that contains a hard inclusion are presented, showing that strain concentrations occur as well. A method to compensate for strain decay and therefore to increase the contrast of the strain elastograms is proposed. It is expected that such information will help to interpret and possibly improve the elastograms obtained via radial compression.     

In vivo three-dimensional photoacoustic tomography of a whole mouse head

An in vivo photoacoustic imaging system was designed and implemented to image the entire small animal head. A special scanning gantry was designed to enable in vivo imaging in coronal cross sections with high contrast and good spatial resolution for the first time to our knowledge. By use of a 2.25 MHz ultrasonic transducer with a 6 mm diameter active element, an in-plane radial resolution of approximately 312 microm was achieved. Deeply seated arterial and venous vessels in the head measuring up to 1.7 cm in diameter were simultaneously imaged in vivo with 804 nm wavelength laser excitation of photoacoustic waves.     

High resolution high field rodent cardiac imaging with flow enhancement suppression

A method that incorporates cardiorespiratory-gated 2DFT spin-echo imaging with blood flow enhancement suppression is described which enables high resolution microimaging of the rodent heart. This methodology was applied to obtain in vivo cardiac mouse and rat images with in-plane resolutions of 100–200 μm using high field vertical bore magnet systems. Suppression of intraventricular blood flow enhancement was achieved using a combined spin-echo/gradient-refocussed sequence to dephase magnetization from flowing spins prior to imaging.     

Current distributions in stripe Majorana junctions

We calculate current and density distributions in stripe (2D planar) junctions between normal and Majorana nanowires having a finite (y) transverse length. In presence of a magnetic field with vertical and in-plane components, the y-symmetry of the charge current distribution in the normal lead changes strongly across the Majorana phase transition: from center-symmetric if a Majorana mode is present to laterally-shifted (as expected by the Hall effect) if the field is tilted such as to destroy the Majorana mode due to the projection rule. We compare quasi-particle and charge distributions of current and density, as well as spin magnetizations. The Majorana mode causes opposite spin accumulations on the transverse sides of the junction and the emergence of a spin current.     

1D spectroscopic imaging with rf echo planar (SIRFEN) methods

A recently developed rf echo planar imaging method has been modified to rapidly generate spectroscopic information along one in-plane axis and spatial information along the other. The method allows the production of one-dimensional chemical shift images (1D CSIs) in acquisition times of 18 sec or less. A specific phase-encode-reordering algorithm provides convenient manipulation of T₂ weighting, yielding partial suppression of short T₂ species like muscle water. The method is demonstrated in phantoms and in vivo with 1D CSIs of human brain and limbs. Abnormal fat distribution is demonstrated in the calf of a patient with aggressive fibromatosis. The advantages of short acquisition times obtainable with SIRFEN are offset by limited spectral resolution, suggesting that primary applications will be confined to rapid spatial mapping of major spectral components.     

Anisotropy of the ultrasonic backscatter of myocardial tissue: II. Measurements in vivo

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the angular dependence of the backscatter from canine myocardial tissue in vivo and to compare it with the variation of backscatter over the cardiac cycle that has been recognized and reported previously. The backscatter was measured from regions of left ventricular wall in canine hearts in which the fibers of the muscle lay parallel to the surface of the heart and were oriented predominantly in a circumferential fashion. Because of technical considerations, the angle of insonification was varied systematically through two cycles in which the angle relative to the muscle fiber axes ranged from 60 degrees-120 degrees. Backscatter was maximum at angles of interrogation perpendicular to the myocardial fibers and minimum at those most acute (60 degrees) relative to the orientation of the fibers. The previously observed variation of integrated backscatter over the heart cycle was evident at each angle of interrogation. At end systole, the average maximum-to-minimum angular variation of integrated backscatter as 5.0 +/- 0.4 dB. At end diastole, the average maximum-to-minimum angular variation was 3.2 +/- 0.4 dB. Thus, even though angular dependence of the backscatter from tissues with directionally oriented structures is substantial, the anisotropy does not account for cardiac-cycle-dependent variation of backscatter. Accordingly, the angular dependence should be incorporated in approaches to quantitative tissue characterization with ultrasound.     

Ultrasound frame rate requirements for cardiac elastography: experimental and in vivo results

Cardiac elastography using radiofrequency echo signals can provide improved 2D strain information compared to B-mode image data, provided data are acquired at sufficient frame rates. In this paper, we evaluate ultrasound frame rate requirements for unbiased and robust estimation of tissue displacements and strain. Both tissue-mimicking phantoms under cyclic compressions at rates that mimic the contractions of the heart and in vivo results are presented. Sinusoidal compressions were applied to the phantom at frequencies ranging from 0.5 to 3.5 cycles/sec, with a maximum deformation of 5% of the phantom height. Local displacements and strains were estimated using both a two-step one-dimensional and hybrid two-dimensional cross-correlation method. Accuracy and repeatability of local strains were assessed as a function of the ultrasound frame rate based on signal-to-noise ratio values.The maximum signal-to-noise ratio obtained in a uniformly elastic phantom is 20 dB for both a 1.26 Hz and a 2 Hz compression frequency when the radiofrequency echo acquisition is at least 12 Hz and 20 Hz respectively. However, for compression frequencies of 2.8 Hz and 4 Hz the maximum signal-to-noise ratio obtained is around 16 dB even for a 40 Hz frame rate. Our results indicate that unbiased estimation of displacements and strain require ultrasound frame rates greater than ten times the compression frequency, although a frame rate of about two times the compression frequency is sufficient to estimate the compression frequency imparted to the tissue-mimicking phantom. In vivo results derived from short-axis views of the heart acquired from normal human volunteers also demonstrate this frame rate requirement for elastography.