Surface integrity of inconel-718 nickel-base superalloy using controlled and natural contact length tools. Part II: Unlubricated

The surface integrity of inconel-718 nickel-base superalloy was investigated using orthogonal cutting at various cutting speeds, depths of cut and chip-tool contact lengths under unlubricated conditions. The experimental work involved the determination of residual stress, plastic strain and microhardness distribution in the surface region and the examination of the surface and subsurface using scanning electron and optical microscope. The results are interpreted in terms of the variation in shear-plane length and consequently the variation in tool forces with the cutting conditions. The results are compared with similar results obtained under lubricated conditions. It is found that the lubricant is effective at low cutting speeds in reducing the tool forces that led to lower hardness and plastic strain in the surface region. In general, the severity of surface damage in terms of intensity and total area affected was decreased with the application of a lubricant. Both residual stresses and plastic strains decreased and the quality of the machined surface improved with an increase in cutting speed, a decrease in depth of cut and with tools having controlled chip-tool contact lengths.     

Residual stresses in turned AISI 4340 steel

The residual-stress distribution in the surface region of workpieces of annealed AISI 4340 steel that is turned under unlubricated conditions is determined using a deflection etching technique. The absolute value of the residual stresses at the machined surface are low and increase with an increase in depth beneath the machined surface to a maximum. They then decrease with a further increase in depth eventually becoming vanishingly small. Peak residual stresses are tensile at cutting speeds of 0.5 and 1.0 ms⁻¹ and are compressive at a cutting speed of 1.5 ms⁻¹ for all feed rates and depths of cut. Peak residual stresses and depth of the stressed region increase with an increase in feed rate and depth of cut, but decrease with an increase in cutting speed. The results of this investigation can be interpreted in terms of the variation of tool forces with cutting conditions.     

Three-dimensional elastic–plastic finite element analysis for orthogonal cutting with discontinuous chip of 6-4 brass

An elastic–plastic finite element model is developed for 3D orthogonal cutting of discontinuous chips. The tool is P20 while the workpiece is made of 6-4 brass. Examined under the condition of low cutting speed are the initial crack location, the direction of crack growth and variations of discrete chips. These predictions are made possible by application of the strain energy density (SED) theory. The initial crack was formed above the tool tip and grew progressively along the stationary values of the SED function until the trajectory intersects with the free surface. The plastic deformation and friction result in a high equivalent stress in the secondary deformation zone of the first longitudinal chip. Stresses are also high at the location of crack initiation. The chip node near the tool face is sensitive to the contact of the tool face. As more residual stress prevails after the first longitudinal cut, degradation of the workpiece surface prevails and should be accounted for.     

Measuring Inaccessible Residual Stresses Using Multiple Methods and Superposition

The traditional contour method maps a single component of residual stress by cutting a body carefully in two and measuring the contour of the cut surface. The cut also exposes previously inaccessible regions of the body to residual stress measurement using a variety of other techniques, but the stresses have been changed by the relaxation after cutting. In this paper, it is shown that superposition of stresses measured post-cutting with results from the contour method analysis can determine the original (pre-cut) residual stresses. The general superposition theory using Bueckner’s principle is developed and limitations are discussed. The procedure is experimentally demonstrated by determining the triaxial residual stress state on a cross section plane. The 2024-T351 aluminum alloy test specimen was a disk plastically indented to produce multiaxial residual stresses. After cutting the disk in half, the stresses on the cut surface of one half were determined with X-ray diffraction and with hole drilling on the other half. To determine the original residual stresses, the measured surface stresses were superimposed with the change stress calculated by the contour method. Within uncertainty, the results agreed with neutron diffraction measurements taken on an uncut disk.     

Controlling the Cut in Contour Residual Stress Measurements of Electron Beam Welded Ti-6Al-4V Alloy Plates

The multiple cut contour method is applied to map longitudinal and transverse components of residual stress in two nominally identical 50 mm thick electron beam welded Ti-6Al-4V alloy plates, one in the as-welded condition and a second welded plate in a post weld heat treated (PWHT) condition. The accuracy and resolution of the contour method results are directly linked to the quality of the electro-discharge machining cut made. Two symmetric surface contour artefacts associated with cutting titanium, surface bowing and a flared edge, are identified and their influence on residual stresses calculated by the contour method is quantified. The former artefact is controlled by undertaking a series of cutting trials with reduced power settings to find optimal cutting conditions. The latter is mitigated by attaching 5 mm thick sacrificial plates to the wire exit side of the test specimen. The low level of noise in the measured stress profiles for both the as-welded and PWHT plates demonstrates the importance of controlling the quality of a contour cut and the added value of undertaking cutting trials.     

Intralaboratory Repeatability of Residual Stress Determined by the Slitting Method

This paper presents repeated slitting method measurements of the residual stress versus depth profile through the thickness of identically prepared samples, which were made to assess repeatability of the method. Measurements were made in five 17.8 mm thick blocks cut from a single plate of 316L stainless steel which had been uniformly laser peened to induce a deep residual stress field. Typical slitting method techniques were employed with a single metallic foil strain gage on the back face of the coupon and incremental cutting by wire EDM. Measured residual stress profiles were analyzed to assess variability of residual stress as a function of depth from the surface. The average depth profile had a maximum magnitude of −668 MPa at the peened surface. The maximum variability also occurred at the surface and had a standard deviation of 15 MPa and an absolute maximum deviation of 26 MPa. Since measured residual stress exceeded yield strength of the untreated plate, microhardness versus depth profiling and elastic–plastic finite element analysis were combined to bound measurement error from inelastic deformation.     

Evaluation of Errors Associated with Cutting-Induced Plasticity in Residual Stress Measurements Using the Contour Method

Cutting-induced plasticity can lead to elevated uncertainties in residual stress measurements made by the contour method. In this study plasticity-induced stress errors are numerically evaluated for a benchmark edge-welded beam to understand the underlying mechanism. Welding and cutting are sequentially simulated by finite element models which have been validated by previous experimental results. It is found that a cutting direction normal to the symmetry plane of the residual stress distribution can lead to a substantially asymmetrical back-calculated stress distribution, owing to cutting-induced plasticity. In general, the stresses at sample edges are most susceptible to error, particularly when the sample is restrained during cutting. Inadequate clamping (far from the plane of cut) can lead to highly concentrated plastic deformation in local regions, and consequently the back-calculated stresses have exceptionally high values and gradients at these locations. Furthermore, the overall stress distribution is skewed towards the end-of-cut side. Adequate clamping (close to the plane of cut) minimises errors in back-calculated stress which becomes insensitive to the cutting direction. For minimal constraint (i.e. solely preventing rigid body motion), the plastic deformation is relatively smoothly distributed, and an optimal cutting direction (i.e. cutting from the base material towards the weld region in a direction that falls within the residual stress symmetry plane) is identified by evaluating the magnitude of stress errors. These findings suggest that cutting process information is important for the evaluation of potential plasticity-induced errors in contour method results, and that the cutting direction and clamping strategy can be optimised with an understanding of their effects on plasticity and hence the back-calculated stresses.     

Improvement of the Contour Method for Measurement of Near-Surface Residual Stresses from Laser Peening

A study was conducted to develop a methodology to obtain near-surface residual stresses for laser-peened aluminium alloy samples using the contour method. After cutting trials to determine the optimal cut parameters, surface contours were obtained and a new data analysis method based on spline smoothing was applied. A new criterion for determining the optimal smoothing parameters is introduced. Near-surface residual stresses obtained from the contour method were compared with X-ray diffraction and incremental hole drilling results. It is concluded that with optimal cutting parameters and data analysis, reliable near-surface residual stresses can be obtained by the contour method.     

山区公路开挖边坡的稳定性研究及其工程治理──以大甘坪路堑边坡为例

针对山区修筑公路常遇开挖自然斜坡坡脚而诱发边坡失稳的情况,以大甘坪路堑边坡为例,对大甘坪粘土进行卸荷路径下的三轴试验,以获得边坡稳定分析的计算参数。对边坡开挖作非线性有限元分析,探讨边坡塑性区形态和确定滑移面位置。现场监测边坡在渗流期的地下水位变化,采用极限平衡法计算边坡的安全系数,并对其稳定性进行评价。根据有限元分析结果,提出了利用抗滑挡土墙支挡和树枝笼排水沟构成排水系统的边坡治理方法。     

Kinematic Field Measurements During Orthogonal Cutting Tests via DIC with Double-frame Camera and Pulsed Laser Lighting

The measurement of machined-part strain fields induced by the cutting process remains a challenge because of the presence of highly intensive and localised strains. In this study, a high-speed double-frame imaging device with pulsed laser lighting is used in order to obtain sharp and highly resolved images during orthogonal cutting tests performed in an aluminium alloy. The displacement fields are then measured using a global Q4–digital-image-correlation (DIC) method and several strategies, facilitating calculation of the total displacements due to the cut, along with the residual strains in the machined part. Numerical procedures are developed to manage the removed material that disturbs the DIC. An automatic primary shear angle detection procedure using DIC is also proposed. Five different markings, which are produced via chemical etching and micro blasting, are applied to the observed surfaces. Their effects on the kinematic fields and the uncertainties are then studied. Three surface parameters are proposed as indicators for determining the surface preparation suitability for the DIC. The repeatability of the kinematic fields induced during the cutting process is studied, because of the ease with which testing can be performed. Finally, the plastically deformed layer engendered by the cutting process is measured using the calculated residual strains.     

Surface Residual Stress Measurement Using Curvature Interferometry

Surface roughness plays an important role in the delamination wear caused by rough surface contact. A recent dislocation model analysis predicts that nano-scale contacts of surface steps induce nucleation of dislocations leading to pro-load and anti-load dislocation segregation near the contact surface. Such dislocation segregation generates a sub-layer of tensile residual stress in a much thicker layer of compressive residual stress near the surface. The tensile sub-layer thickness is expected to be about 50 to 100 times the step height. In order to verify the predictions of the model analysis, contact experiments are carried out on polycrystalline aluminum surface to determine the existence of the tensile sub-layer. The variation of the residual stress along the thickness direction is measured using a newly developed high sensitivity curvature-measurement interferometer. The residual stress distribution measured with sub-nanometer spatial resolution indicates that contact loading leads to formation of a highly stressed sub-layer of tensile residual stress within a much thicker layer of compressive residual stress. Implications of tensile residual stress for delamination wear are discussed.     

切削加工过程数值模拟的研究进展

近年来,有限元方法在切削加工模拟中得到了越来越广泛的应用,在研究切削工艺参数及切屑成形机理方面有着不可替代的作用。本文介绍了国外切削加工过程有限元数值模拟的研究进展,阐述了切削过程有限元模拟的关键技术,包括切屑形成、切削加工中的热力耦合、工件与刀具接触和摩擦、切屑分离和断裂准则以及工件残余应力、残余应变的模拟等技术;最后,还对切削工艺有限元数值模拟的发展方向作了探讨。      

Unloading an elastic-plastic contact of rough surfaces

A statistical model for the unloading of elastic-plastic contact of rough surfaces is presented for a single load-unload cycle. The hystereses of load-separation and load real contact area behavior are analyzed for a wide range of surface roughness and loading conditions. The residual topography of the unloaded rough surfaces is also analyzed and the new distribution functions of asperity heights and summit radii of curvature along with a corresponding GW residual plasticity index are presented. A new modified plasticity index (MPI) is suggested which considers the energy dissipation due to unrecovered plastic deformations. This MPI varies from zero for purely elastic contacts to unity for purely plastic contacts and hence, can better define the level of plasticity of contacting rough surfaces compared to the original GW plasticity index.     

Experimental study of the temperature field generated during orthogonal machining of an aluminum alloy

During the machining of metals, plastic deformation and friction lead to the generation of heat in the workpiece, which results in thermomechanically coupled deformation. Recently, several numerical models of this highly coupled process have been produced in response to increased interest in high speed machining. It is important to characterize the thermal field in the cutting zone in order to completely verify these models of high speed machining and to direct further advancement in this area. In this work, HgCdTe infrared detectors are used to experimentally measure the temperature distribution at the surface of a workpiece during orthogonal cutting. From these temperature measurements, the heat generated in the primary shear zone and the friction zone can be examined and characterized. A modified Hopkinson bar technique has been developed to perform orthogonal machining at speeds ranging from 10 to 100 m/s. In the present work, a cutting velocity of 15 m/s is employed in all the tests in order to demonstrate the capability of the apparatus and characterize thermal fields during low speed machining. Temperature fields are obtained during the orthogonal cutting of aluminum as a function of depth of cut. It is seen that depth of cut can vary both the maximum temperature as well as the distribution of the temperature field in the aluminum workpiece. the maximum temperature increased with depth of cut (238°C for 1.5 mm cut, 207°C for 1.0 mm cut and 138°C for 0.5 mm cut) and the temperature field extended further beneath the cut surface with decreasing depth of cut.     

Construction of a Slip-line Field in Photoviscoplastic Model Test

Slip-line fields in plastic deformations have been theoretically obtained for contact deformations between rigid and idealized-rigid perfectly plastic media under idealized contact conditions. In these analyses, simple assumptions such as idealized perfect lubrication, Coulomb friction or uniform contact pressure have been made However, the deformation and stress states near the contact surface are seriously affected by the mechanical properties of the contact media used and the lubricant or the contact pressure on the contact surface Hence the theoretical slip-line fields are fairly different from the fields obtained from actual experiments The actual slip-line fields are easily constructed, however, by using the isoclinic- fringe pattern obtained from photoviscoplastic model tests using polymers.     

非稳态纯滚动接触弹塑性分析

建立了二维弹塑性非稳态循环纯滚动接触有限元模型.材料本构采用一种较好的循环塑性模型,并通过材料用户子程序在通用有限元软件ABAQUS中自定义该本构模型.通过在弹塑性无限半空间表面上重复移动随时间按简谐规律变化的赫兹法向载荷来模拟非稳态循环纯滚动接触过程.通过数值模拟,得到接触表面附近的残余累积变形、应变和残余应力.不同的最大赫兹接触压力对残余应力和残余应变影响较大.在简谐变化的法向接触载荷作用下接触表面的变形呈波浪形,随着滚动次数的增加,该波状表面沿载荷移动相反方向逐渐移动,但移动速率要衰减.波状表面波谷处的残余应力、应变和变形大于波峰处.随滚动次数的增加,残余应力增大但很快趋于稳定,残余应变也增大但增大速率衰减.     

Stress measurement of SS400 steel beam using the continuous indentation technique

An analytical model is presented for determining surface residual stress using continuous indentation. The elastic residual stress is assumed to have no influence on contact area or hardness and to be uniform over a volume that is several times larger than the indentation mark. A step-by-step analysis for the residual-stress-induced load difference at a given depth is outlined here and such concepts as stress interaction, stress-sensitive contact morphology, and reversible contact recoveries during a stress relaxation are described. Finally, the proposed method is applied to the interpretation of the continuous indentation results obtained from an SS400 steel beam in which controlled bending stresses are generated. The stress estimated, however, showed a high scatter due to plastic pile-up deformation. When the optically measured contact area is used as an alternative of the contact area calculated from the unloading curve, the re-evaluated stress agrees well with the already known applied stress.     

Optimization of cutting conditions for end milling of Ti6Al4V Alloy by using a Gravitational Search Algorithm (GSA)

Surface roughness is commonly used to indicate the quality of machine parts. Optimizing cutting parameters throughout the machining process is an important aspect for manufacturers, as it allows them to achieve a minimum surface value. During this study, a new optimization technique known as the gravitational search algorithm (GSA) was employed in order to achieve minimum surface roughness when end milling a Ti6Al4V alloy under dry cutting conditions, with both PVD coated and uncoated cutting tools. Regression models have been created based on the results of real experimental data. Through use of SPSS software, it was possible to formulate the objective (fitness) functions which were used in the GSA optimization for each cutting tool. A MATLAB code was then created to instigate the optimization process. The results indicated that high cutting speed and low feed rate and depth of cut could result in a minimum surface roughness value of (0.6255 μm), based on the objective function for the PVD cutting tool. Alternatively, surface roughness of around (0.4165 μm) could be achieved by using an uncoated tool on a lower feed rate, depth of cut and cutting speed. The same GSA technique was used in another case study optimized by Genetic algorithm (GA). The GSA achieved the same results, and proved that it is faster than GA: GSA could reach the optimum solution in the third iteration; GA could only reach it in the 67th.     

冷却润滑对纯铁车削刀具磨损的影响机理

合适的冷却润滑方式是改善切削摩擦,降低切削温度和切削力,提高刀具寿命的关键技术.采用干切、水冷、微量润滑(Minimum quantity lubrication,MQL)以及菜籽油润滑等四种方式进行了不同工艺参数下纯铁材料的车削试验,研究了冷却润滑方式对纯铁车削刀具磨损的影响机理.结果表明:纯铁车削时刀具磨损形态以主、副切削刃处的沟槽磨损和后刀面磨损为主,前刀面上黏结有工件材料并形成积屑瘤;MQL条件下的刀具寿命最长,而水冷时最小;扩散磨损、氧化磨损和黏结磨损是纯铁车削刀具的主要磨损机理;四种冷却润滑方式下切削力、前刀面与切屑间平均摩擦系数和表面显微硬度的显著差异是造成刀具寿命明显不同的根本原因.