Evaluation of environmental filtration control of engineered nanoparticles using the Harvard Versatile Engineered Nanomaterial Generation System (VENGES)

Applying engineering controls to airborne engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) is critical to prevent environmental releases and worker exposure. This study evaluated the effectiveness of two air sampling and six air cleaning fabric filters at collecting ENPs using industrially relevant flame-made engineered nanoparticles generated using a versatile engineered nanomaterial generation system (VENGES), recently designed and constructed at Harvard University. VENGES has the ability to generate metal and metal oxide exposure atmospheres while controlling important particle properties such as primary particle size, aerosol size distribution, and agglomeration state. For this study, amorphous SiO₂ ENPs with a 15.4 nm primary particle size were generated and diluted with HEPA-filtered air. The aerosol was passed through the filter samples at two different filtration face velocities (2.3 and 3.5 m/min). Particle concentrations as a function of particle size were measured upstream and downstream of the filters using a specially designed filter test system to evaluate filtration efficiency. Real time instruments (FMPS and APS) were used to measure particle concentration for diameters from 5 to 20,000 nm. Membrane-coated fabric filters were found to have enhanced nanoparticle collection efficiency by 20–46 % points compared to non-coated fabric and could provide collection efficiency above 95 %.     

Filtration efficiency of a fibrous filter for nanoparticles

The filtration efficiency for nanoparticles down to 1 nm in size through glass fibrous filters was measured using an improved PSM-CNC system. In addition, the effects of relative humidity and particle charge were investigated for various nanoparticle diameters. The results show that the filtration efficiencies were independent of humidity and affected by particle charge in the case of particles below 100 nm in size. For particles smaller than 2 nm, the particle penetrations increased with decreasing particle size. These results suggest that the thermal rebound phenomena would be operative for nanoparticles with diameters below 2 nm, even though it would depend on the states of both the particles and the filter media. These results are particularly important for experimental investigations of the behavior of nanoparticles on a filter.     

Experimental study of nanoparticles penetration through commercial filter media

In this study, nanoparticle penetration was measured with a wide range of filter media using silver nanoparticles from 3 nm to 20 nm at three different face velocities in order to define nanoparticle filtration characteristics of commercial fibrous filter media. The silver particles were generated by heating a pure silver powder source via an electric furnace with a temperature of 870°C, which was found to be the optimal temperature for generating an adequate amount of silver nanoparticles for the size range specified above. After size classification using a nano-DMA, the particle counts were measured by an Ultrafine Condensation Particle Counter (UCPC) both upstream and downstream of the test filter to determine the nanoparticle penetration for each specific particle size. Particle sampling time continued long enough to detect more than 10⁵ counts at the upstream and 10 counts at the downstream sampling point so that 99.99% efficiency can be detected with the high efficiency filter. The results show a very high uniformity with small error bars for all filter media tested in this study. The particle penetration decreases continuously down to 3 nm as expected from the classical filtration theory, and together with a companion modeling paper by␣Wang et al. in this same issue, we found no significant evidence of nanoparticle thermal rebound down to 3 nm.     

A comparison of two nano-sized particle air filtration tests in the diameter range of 10 to 400 nanometers

Two different air filter test methodologies are discussed and compared for challenges in the nano-sized particle range of 10–400 nm. Included in the discussion are test procedure development, factors affecting variability and comparisons between results from the tests. One test system which gives a discrete penetration for a given particle size is the TSI 8160 Automated Filter tester (updated and commercially available now as the TSI 3160) manufactured by the TSI, Inc., Shoreview, MN. Another filter test system was developed utilizing a Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer (SMPS) to sample the particle size distributions downstream and upstream of an air filter to obtain a continuous percent filter penetration versus particle size curve. Filtration test results are shown for fiberglass filter paper of intermediate filtration efficiency. Test variables affecting the results of the TSI 8160 for NaCl and dioctyl phthalate (DOP) particles are discussed, including condensation particle counter stability and the sizing of the selected particle challenges. Filter testing using a TSI 3936 SMPS sampling upstream and downstream of a filter is also shown with a discussion of test variables and the need for proper SMPS volume purging and filter penetration correction procedure. For both tests, the penetration versus particle size curves for the filter media studied follow the theoretical Brownian capture model of decreasing penetration with decreasing particle diameter down to 10 nm with no deviation. From these findings, the authors can say with reasonable confidence that there is no evidence of particle thermal rebound in the size range.     

Respiratory protection against airborne nanoparticles: a review

As a precautionary measure, it is often recommended that workers take steps to reduce their exposure to airborne nanoparticles through the use of respiratory protective devices. The purpose of this study was to provide a review and analysis of the research literature and current recommendations on respirators used for protection against nanoparticles. Key research findings were that studies with particles as small as 4 nm have shown that conventional single-fiber filtration theory can be used to describe the filtration performance of respirators and that the most penetrating particle size for respirators equipped with commonly used electrostatic filter media is in the range of 30–100 nm. Future research needs include human laboratory and workplace protection factor studies to measure the respirator total inward leakage of nanoparticles. Industrial hygienists and safety professionals should continue to use traditional respirator selection guidance for workers exposed to nanoparticles.     

Recyclable aligned carbon nanotube-sheet-based particulate air filter with high filtration efficiency and low pressure drop

There is an increasing demand for particulate matter filters to primarily block viruses and fine particulate matter floating in the air from entering the human body. The most commonly used microfiber-based filter has a technical flaw in which the filtration efficiency cannot be maximized as there is a trade-off in terms of performance; the pressure drop increases when the filtration efficiency increases. Here, we report the development of a recyclable macroscopic carbon nanotube (CNT)-based filter consisting of unidirectionally arranged multi-walled carbon nanotube sheets. Owing to the uniform arrangement of the 10–20 nm carbon nanotubes, uniform nanopores are formed. As a result, the CNT-sheet-based particulate matter filter exhibited low pressure drop characteristics, even at a high filtration efficiency. In addition, it was confirmed that the collected particulate matter could rapidly be removed through heat generated by applying a voltage to the conductive CNT sheet.     

Correlation between charge decay and solvent effect for melt-blown polypropylene electret filter fabrics

Melt-blown polypropylene electret fabrics are widely used as air filter media. However, its filtration efficiency gradually decays in application process. This paper is to investigate the correlation between filtration efficiency decay and solvent effect. Experimental results show that filtration efficiency displays a regular decrease when polypropylene electret fabrics are exposed to solvents in the sequence of water, ethanol, isopropanol and acetone. The results can be correlated to solubility parameter difference between polypropylene and solvent according to the Flory–Huggins swelling theory. Smaller solubility parameter difference leads to greater decay of filtration efficiency owing to greater affinity between polypropylene and solvent.     

Estimation of the upper limit of aerosol nanoparticles penetration through inhomogeneous fibrous filters

The fully segregated flow model (FSFM) was formulated to describe filtration of aerosol nanoparticles in polydisperse fibrous filters made of fibers with different diameters. The model is capable of predicting significantly higher penetration of nanoparticles through polydisperse filters than it may be expected from the classical theory applied to a mean fiber diameter. The model was solved numerically in the case of the log-normal fiber size distribution, and a simple correlation between the actual penetration through a polydisperse filter and the one calculated for the geometric mean fiber diameter was proposed. Equivalent fiber diameter for deposition due to Brownian diffusion was determined and it was found to be dependent on particle size and filter’s polydispersity degree, being significantly greater than any mean fiber diameter. It was noted that it is impossible to select any one universal mean fiber diameter to describe penetration of nanoparticles with different sizes. It was also shown that in the case of a polydisperse fibrous filter the apparent exponent of the Peclet number based on the mean fiber diameter is greater than the expected value of −2/3 for diffusional deposition in a monodisperse filter. This prediction is in agreement with the available experimental data. The FSFM is expected to give the estimation of the upper limit of nanoparticles penetration in polydisperse fibrous filters.     

Modeling of filtration efficiency of nanoparticles in standard filter media

The goal of this study is to model the data from the experiments of nanoparticle filtration performed at the Particle Technology Lab, University of Minnesota and at the 3M Company. Comparison shows that the experimental data for filter efficiency are bounded by the values computed from theoretical expressions which do not consider thermal rebound. Therefore thermal rebound in the tested filter media is not detected down to 3 nm particles in the present analysis. The efficiency measured experimentally is in good agreement with the theoretical expression by Stechkina (1966, Dokl. Acad. Nauk SSSR 167, 1327) when the Pectlet number Pe is larger than 100; it agrees well with the theoretical expression by Kirsch and Stechkina (1978, Fundamentals of Aerosol Science. Wiley, New York) when Pe is of the order of unit. We develop an empirical power law model for the efficiency depending on the Peclet number, which leads to satisfactory agreement with experimental results.     

A risk assessment study of heavy metals in ambient air by WD‐XRF spectrometry using aerosol‐generated filter standards

A risk assessment study of the air quality in the surrounding of roads covered with slags coming from the non‐ferrous metal industry was performed. A monitoring campaign was carried out at three locations in Flanders by collecting the PM10 fraction and the total suspended particulates (TSP) of the airborne dust particles, entrapping heavy metals, on membrane filters. The heavy metal concentration on the dust filters was determined by wavelength‐dispersive x‐ray fluorescence (WD‐XRF) spectrometry. The XRF calibration curves were set up with filter standards prepared in the laboratory using an aerosol‐generated loading system. The acquired WD‐XRF results were confirmed by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometric (ICP‐AES) measurements after acid digestion on a selected number of filters. Electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) confirmed that aerosol‐loaded filter standards and dust filters with a concentration level of the analyzed element below 3300 ng cm^?2 were homogeneously distributed. Dust filters with higher concentrations, and especially filters loaded with the TSP fraction, reflected an inhomogeneous distribution of the analyzed element on the filter. The WD‐XRF analytical results acquired in the monitoring campaign revealed that the concentration of Pb on the dust filters never exceeded the immission standard (yearly average) of 2000 ng m^?3. It can be stated that the impact on human health is limited and can still be reduced by covering the polluted roads with a layer of asphalt. Further evaluation of soil and water samples from the nearby surroundings reveals that the heavy metal content in the slags makes an important contribution to environmental pollution, especially the contamination of groundwater. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Measurement of filtration efficiency of Nuclepore filters challenged with polystyrene latex nanoparticles: experiments and modeling

Membrane filtration has been demonstrated to be effective for the removal of liquid-borne nanoparticles (NPs). Such technique can be applied to purify and disinfect drinking water as well as remove NPs in highly pure chemicals used in the industries. This study aims to study the filtration process of a model membrane filter, the Nuclepore filter. Experiments were carried out using standard filtration tools and the nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) technique was used to measure particle (50–500 nm) concentration upstream and downstream of the filter to determine the filtration efficiency. The NTA technique has been calibrated using 150-nm polystyrene latex particles to determine its accuracy of particle concentration measurement. Measurements were found reliable within a certain concentration limit (about 10⁸–10¹⁰ particles/cm³), which is dependent on the camera settings during the measurement. Experimental results are comparable with previously published data obtained using the aerosolization method, validating the capability of the NTA technique. The capillary tube model modified from that developed for aerosol filtration was found to be useful to represent the experimental results, when a sticking coefficient of 0.15 is incorporated. This suggests that only 15% of the particle collisions with the filter results in successful attachment. The small sticking coefficient found can be explained by the unfavorable surface interactions between the particles and the filter medium.     

Comparison of the behaviour of manufactured and other airborne nanoparticles and the consequences for prioritising research and regulation activities

Currently, there are no air quality regulations in force in any part of the world to control number concentrations of airborne atmospheric nanoparticles (ANPs). This is partly due to a lack of reliable information on measurement methods, dispersion characteristics, modelling, health and other environmental impacts. Because of the special characteristics of manufactured (also termed engineered or synthesised) nanomaterials or nanoparticles (MNPs), a substantial increase is forecast for their manufacture and use, despite understanding of safe design and use, and health and environmental implications being in its early stage. This article discusses a number of underlining technical issues by comparing the properties and behaviour of MNPs with anthropogenically produced ANPs. Such a comparison is essential for the judicious treatment of the MNPs in any potential air quality regulatory framework for ANPs.     

纳米颗粒在复杂生物介质中的反常扩散

由于生物微环境中存在各向异性等复杂物理因素影响,纳米颗粒在其中的扩散运动表现出反常的特征.反常扩散与生物微环境的功能实现有重要的关联,同时也是流体力学在微纳尺度方向的重要扩展.该综述系统介绍了近年来反常扩散研究的进展,从物理模型、数值模拟、测量方法及实验现象等方面揭示了纳米颗粒在复杂生物介质中的反常扩散机理及特征.该问题在微纳尺度流体力学、生物物理等领域是研究的热点,在理论上和实验时仍有重大挑战,有待进一步深入研究.      

Filtration characteristics of fibrous filter following an electrostatic precipitator

This study presents the results of investigations of a hybrid electrostatic filtration system (HEFS), which combines an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) and a fibrous filter installed downstream of the ESP. The particles escaping from the ESP carry large amount of charge and this can increase the filtration efficiency of the fibrous filter. The filtration characteristics, including the efficiency, pressure drop and ozone generation, were investigated experimentally. The influence of system parameters, including the filter type, applied voltage, and distance between the ESP and fibrous filter on the overall efficiency were also studied. The measured results show that utilizing the non-high-efficient fibrous filter to remove the charged particle could provide a much higher efficiency without adding the pressure drop due to the electrostatic force. If the efficiency was similar, the ozone generated by HEFS was much lower than that of the single ESP. The results proved that filter efficiency increased with a higher applied voltage and higher initial mechanical filtration efficiency. The distance between the filter and ESP had no influence on the system filtration efficiency. The efficiency of filter in HEFS supplied with the positive voltage was slightly lower than for the negative voltage. In addition, the mathematical model was utilized to model the air filter efficiency in HEFS. The modeled and measured results agreed reasonably. Overall conclusion is that the HEFS could operate at a high efficiency with the lower applied voltage, ozone generation and pressure drop.     

成像型声光可调谐滤光器关键性能指标测试方法研究

成像型声光可调谐滤光器(acousto-optic tunable filter, AOTF)是近年来发展起来的一种十分重要的新型光谱成像仪器滤光器件。文章分析了成像型AOTF的基本工作原理,并研究了一套AOTF关键性能如衍射效率、波长温漂、空间衍射效率均匀性、图像漂移等指标的测试方法。     

Inter-laboratory performance between two nanoparticle air filtration systems using scanning mobility particle analyzers

The performance of two aerosol testing systems, at two different laboratories (University of Nebraska Medical Center—UNMC and 3M Company), was compared to evaluate which calibration procedures minimized variability in filter testing of nanoparticles. Both charged electret and uncharged flat-web fibrous filters were used with Scanning Mobility Particle Sizers to give upstream and downstream size distributions and calculate filter penetration. Challenge aerosols were polydisperse nanoparticles of sodium chloride (NaCl) ranging from approximately 10–300 nm and monodisperse polystyrene latex (PSL) spheres of preselected sizes, including 40, 60, 100, and 200 nm. The implementation of optimized procedures resulted in comparable filtration performance at the two testing sites with challenges of NaCl particles and PSL spheres. The penetration results for the uncharged filter were nearly identical for both challenges, while lower penetration through the charged filter was observed with NaCl aerosol, probably due to differences in NaCl and PSL dielectric constants. Results showed that reproducible, comparable nanoparticle filtration data could be achieved between two separate laboratories when sources of error and proper calibration procedures were addressed.     

Measurement of multi-wall carbon nanotube penetration through a screen filter and single-fiber analysis

In this study, we carried out experiments to study penetration of airborne carbon nanotubes (CNTs) through a screen filter. An electrospray system was employed to aerosolize suspensions of multi-wall CNTs. The generated airborne CNTs were characterized by electron microscopy, and the length and diameter were measured. In the filtration experiments, the challenging CNTs are classified by a differential mobility analyzer. Monodisperse CNTs with the same electrical mobility were then employed to challenge the screen filter. Penetration was measured for CNTs in the range of 100–400 nm mobility diameters. The results showed that the CNT penetration was less than the penetration for a sphere with the same mobility diameter, which was mainly due to the larger interception length of the CNTs. We compared the modeling results using single-fiber filtration efficiency theories with the experimental data, and found that the effective interception length can be approximated by the CNT aerodynamic diameter multiplying a scaling factor. A hypothesis is proposed to understand the observation.     

Real-time and online screening method for materials emitting volatile organic compounds

In the semiconductor industry, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the cleanroom air work as airborne molecular contamination, which reduce the production yield of semiconductor chips by forming nanoparticles and haze on silicon wafers and photomasks under ultraviolet irradiation during photolithography processes. Even though VOCs in outdoor air are removed by gas filters, VOCs can be emitted from many kinds of materials used in cleanrooms, such as organic solvents and construction materials (e.g., adhesives, flame retardants and sealants), threatening the production of semiconductors. Therefore, finding new replacements that emit lower VOCs is now essential in the semiconductor industry. In this study, we developed a real-time and online method to screen materials for developing the replacements by converting VOCs into nanoparticles under soft X-ray irradiation. This screening method was applied to measure VOCs emitted from different kinds of organic solvents and adhesives. Our results showed good repeatability and high sensitivity for VOCs, which come from aromatic compounds, some alcohols and all tested adhesives (Super glue and cleanroom-use adhesives). In addition, the overall trend of measured VOCs from cleanroom-use adhesives was well matched with those measured by a commercial thermal desorption–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, which is a widely used off-line method for analyzing VOCs. Based on the results, this screening method can help accelerate the developing process for reducing VOCs in cleanrooms.     

基于带通滤波片的激光二极管自混频纳米颗粒干涉测量技术

激光二极管自混频技术可用于纳米颗粒的测量,采用多通道带通滤波技术分别测量了180,100,60nm三种纳米颗粒,获得自混频信号的频带功率谱(PS-BPF)。作为比较,对实时提取的自混频信号进行傅里叶变换得到功率谱密度(PSD)函数。分别对PSD函数和PS-BPF反演计算得到颗粒粒径分布。结果显示:两种方法得到的颗粒粒径分布基本一致,并与商用仪器测试结果吻合。对两种处理方式的模式矩阵分析表明,多通道带通滤波技术明显优于PSD函数处理方式。     

Solar-Blind滤光片可见光谱段光密度连续测量

为实现Solar Blind（日盲紫外）滤光片光密度在可见光谱段的高精度连续测试,搭建了以氙灯配合单色仪作为光源、使用单光子计数器作为探测器的测试系统,并对该系统的误差进行分析。系统主要装置有氙灯与单色仪组合的光源,标准衰减装置和单光子计数器;以替代法为基础进行测试,将由单光子计数器探测到的衰减后的计数值作为参考计数值替代光源的初始计数值,通过运算得到滤光片的可见光谱段光密度;该测试系统将滤光片光密度的测试动态范围扩展到0~-11OD,实现了可见光谱段内进行连续光谱测量的功能,且降低了系统的测试误差。与使用窄带LED作为光源的测试系统相比,测试不确定度由2%降低至0.5%,相对重复性误差由0.2％ 降低至0.13％。