Modeling spherical explosions with aluminized energetic materials

This paper deals with the numerical solution and validation of a reactive flow model dedicated to the study of spherical explosions with an aluminized energetic material. Situations related to air blast as well as underwater explosions are examined. Such situations involve multiscale phenomena associated with the detonation reaction zone, the aluminium reaction zone, the shock propagation distance and the bubble oscillation period. A detonation tracking method is developed in order to avoid the detonation structure computation. An ALE formulation is combined to the detonation tracking method in order to solve the material interface between detonation products and the environment as well as shock propagation. The model and the algorithm are then validated over a wide range of spherical explosions involving several types of explosives, both in air and liquid water environment. Large-scale experiments have been done in order to determine the blast wave effects with explosive compositions of variable aluminium content. In all situations the agreement between computed and experimental results is very good.     

RDX基铝纤维炸药空中爆炸性能

将铝纤维炸药与传统铝粉炸药和RDX炸药进行空中爆炸实验并得到压力时程曲线,经过分析计算得到3种炸药的压力峰值、二次击波、正相持续时间以及冲量。结果表明:铝纤维炸药的压力峰值相对于RDX没有明显提高,但其压力时程曲线衰减速度慢于RDX的,使铝纤维炸药的正相持续时间大于RDX,铝纤维炸药的冲击波冲量相对于RDX的平均提高了18%,与铝粉炸药的相当。铝纤维炸药的二次击波超压幅值与到达时间与铝粉炸药的接近,而铝纤维炸药的二次击波到达时间早于RDX,说明二次击波的超压幅值与到达时间与炸药类型有关。     

不同炸药性能对爆破振动效应的影响

从岩石内炸药爆轰能量释放形式的角度,结合现场实时爆破振动监测数据,对比分析2种不同炸药性能的炸药产生的爆破振动特性,并对质点振动速度峰值的衰减规律及爆破振动持续时间进行回归分析.结果表明:除单响炸药量和爆心距,炸药自身性能对爆破振动效应的衰减规律和振动持续时间也有很大影响.     

CL-20基混合炸药的冲击起爆特征

为了研究CL-20基混合炸药的冲击起爆特征,深入分析冲击波作用下CL-20基混合炸药的爆轰成长规律,采用炸药驱动飞片冲击起爆实验方法,对CL-20、CL-20/NTO和CL-20/FOX-7三种压装混合炸药进行了冲击起爆实验,通过嵌入在炸药内部不同位置处的锰铜压力传感器,获得了炸药内部压力的变化历程。依据实验结果标定了混合炸药的点火增长模型参数,其中,利用反应速率方程中的两个增长项,分别模拟CL-20/NTO和CL-20/FOX-7混合炸药中两种组分的反应增长过程,得到这两种混合炸药的反应速率方程参数。并通过数值模拟的方法得到了三种炸药的临界起爆阈值和POP关系。研究结果表明:三种CL-20基混合炸药中,CL-20/NTO混合炸药具有更高的临界起爆阈值,而CL-20/FOX-7混合炸药具有更长的爆轰成长距离;此外,利用此套拟合双组分混合炸药反应速率方程的方法,可以对新型配方炸药的冲击起爆过程进行预测性计算     

Application of background oriented schlieren for quantitative measurements of shock waves from explosions

This paper describes application of a background oriented schlieren technique in order to obtain quantitative measurements of shock waves from explosions by processing high speed digital video recordings. The technique is illustrated by an analysis of two explosions, a high explosive test and a hydrogen gas explosion test. The visualization of the shock front is utilized to calculate the shock Mach number, leading to a predicted shock front pressure. For high explosives the method agreed quite well with a standard curve for side-on shock pressures. In the case of the gas explosion test we can also show that the shock front is non-spherical. It should be possible to develop this technique to investigate external blast waves and external explosions from vented gas explosions in more details. This paper is based on work that was presented at the 21th International Colloquium on the Dynamics of Explosions and Reactive Systems, Poitiers, France, July 23–27, 2007.     

Autonomous gauge for blast impulse determination close to explosive charges

This paper reports on a new gauge for blast impulse determination close to explosive charges. The gauge is based on the autonomous data recorder g-rec developed at the Ernst-Mach-Institute for data acquisition in harsh environments. Combined with an acceleration sensor these data recorders allow for the direct determination of the momentum transferred to an object by a blast wave even in the immediate vicinity of the explosive charge. From this the blast impulse can be determined. Using autonomous electronics distinct advantages are gained compared to classical passive momentum traps. The paper summarizes the properties of the g-rec recorder and describes the setup of the autonomous momentum trap in detail. Numerical simulations are presented which illustrate the gauge performance and its limitations. Tests with 1 kg charges demonstrate the feasibility of the approach. Good agreement was found between simulations and tests. The application range of the gauges is determined by the measurement range of the built-in acceleration sensor and its overall dimensions and weight. The present configuration is designed for distances between \(\sim \)0.3 and 1 m from charges between several 100 g and several kilograms. Data were successfully collected down to reduced distances of 0.25 m/kg\(^{1/3}\). Minor changes in gauge dimensions, weight, or measurement range enable the gauges to be deployed at even closer distances.     

CL-20基炸药水中爆炸气泡脉动实验研究

为研究CL-20基炸药、CL-20基含铝炸药水下爆炸气泡脉动情况,在2 m×2 m×2 m的实验水箱中开展小当量实验,采用高速摄影技术,得到炸药水中爆炸冲击波传播曲线,同时清晰地观测到气泡的产生、膨胀和收缩过程。拟合得到气泡脉动过程中气泡半径、速度、加速度对时间的变化曲线,对比分析了CL-20含铝与非含铝炸药水下爆炸气泡脉动规律。在实验条件下,首次直观地拍摄到CL-20含铝炸药水下爆炸的二次反应放热现象。实验表明:CL-20基含铝炸药的气泡半径、脉动周期都明显升高,半径增大13.7%,周期增大6.9%;冲击波峰值压力略有下降;水下爆炸测试技术以及高速摄影技术是研究观测含铝炸药二次反应的有效手段。     

Optical measurement and scaling of blasts from gram-range explosive charges

Laboratory-scale experiments with gram-range explosive charges are presented. Optical shadowgraphy and high-speed digital imaging are used to measure the explosive-driven shock-wave position as a function of time. From this, shock Mach number-versus-distance from the explosion center can be found. These data then yield the peak overpressure and duration, which are the key parameters in determining the potential damage from an explosion as well as the TNT equivalent of the explosive. Piezoelectric pressure gage measurements of overpressure duration at various distances from the explosive charges compare well with theoretical calculations. A scaling analysis yields an approach to relate the gram-range blast to a large-scale blast from the same or different explosives. This approach is particularly suited to determining the properties and behavior of exotic explosives like triacetone triperoxide (TATP). Results agree with previous observations that the concept of a single TNT equivalence value is inadequate to fully describe an explosive yield, rather TNT equivalence factor and overpressure duration should be presented as functions of radius.      

TATB基钝感炸药JB-9014的冲击起爆反应增长规律

采用铝基组合式电磁粒子速度计技术，通过一维平面冲击实验研究了JB-9014炸药的冲击起爆反应增长规律，获得了11.33～14.18 GPa不同初始入射冲击压力下JB-9014炸药撞击界面及其内部不同深度处冲击前沿的波后粒子速度，进而得到粒子速度-时间波剖面图，并拟合得到未反应JB-9014炸药的Hugoniot关系。此外，根据冲击波跟踪器所测波形获得了不同冲击压力下的到爆轰时间及距离。     

侧向稀疏波对非均质凝聚炸药冲击波起爆过程的影响

以压装TNT为例,开展二维拉氏实验,利用二维锰铜-康铜组合拉氏量计测量了轴对称位置和径向位置的压力时程曲线和径向位移曲线.同时利用二维拉格朗日分析计算程序RFLA对压装TNT的冲击波起爆过程进行了计算,分别得到了在2个不同径向位置上各个Lagrange位置上的质点速度、相对比容、比内能等时程曲线.研究结果展现了侧向稀疏...     

受热炸药的冲击起爆特征

设计了炸药驱动飞片起爆受热炸药的实验装置,该装置既能够对实验炸药进行均匀地加热,又能够避免高温对加载炸药的影响。利用设计的实验装置对PBXC10炸药（HMX/TATB复合炸药）进行了14、100、140、160和180 ℃等5种不同加热温度下的冲击起爆实验,测量了该炸药内部压力的成长历程。采用点火增长反应速率方程对PBXC10炸药冲击起爆进行了数值模拟。根据实验结果,标定了不同温度下PBXC10炸药的点火增长模型参数,并给出了模型参数随温度变化的关系式,获得了不同温度下炸药的Pop关系。研究结果表明:PBXC10炸药的冲击波感度随温度的升高而升高,但与HMX炸药相比,其冲击波感度对温度的敏感性明显降低,这是因为PBXC10炸药中的TATB具有较好的降感作用。     

A study of blast wave loading on cantilevers

A study has been made of the response of elastic-plastic and brittle circular-cross-section cantilevers when subjected to blast wave loading. It is demonstrated how the deformation or failure of such cantilevers enables them to be used as blast wave gauges. In addition, the deformation of cantilever-type structures can be used to assess the characteristics of accidental explosions. Two numerical models have been developed to describe the deformation of a dynamically loaded cantilever. Both models assume that the plastic deformation is localized in a region near the fixed end, and that the loading force is a function of the dynamic-pressure time-history and a variable drag coefficient, which depends on the Reynolds number, Mach number and angle of attack of each discretized element of the cantilever. The first model assumes a rigid-plastic response of the cantilever. It was found that this model accurately described the response of cantilevers made of 50/50 lead/tin alloy. It overestimated the deformation of cantilevers made of more elastic materials when exposed to blast waves from high explosives and in a shock tube. The second model assumes an elastic-plastic response. The algorithm is based on the premise that the elastic curvature of the cantilever is limited by the plastic yield stress of the material and that as the curvature approaches this limit the cantilever rotates by the amount needed to keep the curvature constant and equal to this maximum. It has been shown that this algorithm minimizes the curvature of the cantilever at the base. This model provided good predictions of the deformation of cantilevers made of aluminum and steel. The numerical models were evaluated by studying the response of cantilevers exposed to shock waves in a shock tube, and to the blast waves from two explosions of ammonium-nitrate/fuel-oil charges of approximately 2.5 kt. The response to the shock tube flows was recorded by high speed photography which showed good agreement between the observed modes of deflection and those predicted by the elastic-plastic model. The models also provided good predictions of the deformation of a wide range of cantilevers, made of a variety of materials and of different diameters and lengths, when exposed to the free field blast waves. It is demonstrated how the numerical models can be used to determine the type of cantilever that might be used as a gauge for monitoring the blast wave from an explosion, or for evaluating the deformation of a cantilever exposed to the blast wave from an accidental explosion so as to characterize the explosion. Received 23 September 1996 / Accepted 11 November 1996     

温压炸药的特性及发展现状

温压炸药的爆炸涉及到起爆、爆轰、冲击波的传播与反射、多相湍流和多模化学反应等, 是一个多尺度、多物质、多因素、多物理场耦合过程, 深化温压炸药高效释能的关键基础理论, 揭示温压爆炸的反应机理并有效控制和利用是温压武器创新发展的关键科学问题, 对高威力温压炸药的配方设计、温压武器的研制和使用具有重要指导意义. 本文描述了温压爆炸的基本原理, 讨论了温压炸药的概念和内涵, 从炸药种类、释能特点、能量构成、爆炸反应机制、爆炸效应增强机理、杀伤机制等方面阐述了温压炸药的特征, 分析了温压炸药有限空间内部爆炸威力的评估方法以及温压炸药的研发状况, 并提出了相关发展建议, 以期为高威力温压炸药的设计、温压弹的研制及毁伤评估提供指导.      

用十字形超细药条离散群同步起爆实现超低比冲量加载

余弦分布载荷的化爆加载技术是高空核爆软X射线辐照下空间结构动态响应考核的主要手段。为适应新型空间飞行器结构考核的复杂构型、高同步性和低比冲量载荷设计要求,提出了一种用十字形超细药条离散群同步起爆实现超低比冲量加载的方法。实验结果验证表明：(1)所制作的十字形超细药条,最小截面尺寸为0.33 mm×0.5 mm,传爆性能稳定,并可通过直径0.5 mm的柔爆索直接起爆;(2)与相同布药密度的条状布药方式相比,布药空间均匀度提高了76.7%;(3)所采用的21点柔爆索同步起爆网络,起爆率达100%,起爆不同步性小于1μs。进一步建立了离散片炸药加载数值计算模型,分析了离散片炸药群同步起爆加载的比冲量空间分布和匀化规律,将匀化过程分为扩散段、叠加段和均匀段3个阶段;对比了方形、十字形、短条形3种形状药片阵列的比冲量演化过程,发现十字形药片所需匀化距离最短、均匀度最高,仅需约0.8倍布药间距即可使比冲量均匀度偏差降至10%以下。     

Euler–Lagrange simulation of high pressure shock waves

This paper presents the numerical simulation of overdriven detonation (or O.D.D.) that occurs when a high velocity object impacts an explosive. The pressure and the velocity at this state are higher than those of the Chapman–Jouguet (C–J) state. First, before the simulation of this event, a study of PBX air blast by using multi-material Eulerian method is presented. Pressure peaks are computed for several distances from the explosive. Second, the O.D.D. phenomenon is modeled by the Euler–Lagrange penalty coupling, which permits to couple a Lagrangian mesh of the flyer plate to multi-material Eulerian mesh of explosives and air. This coupling gives us the high detonation velocities in the acceptor explosive and demonstrates that it is able to handle shock–structure interaction problems.     

球形装药动态爆炸冲击波超压场计算模型

为获得球形装药动态爆炸冲击波超压场计算模型,对静态爆炸冲击波超压Baker计算公式加入修正因子进行修正,并建立了构造包含装药运动速度、对比距离和方位角的修正因子函数的方法。为获得修正因子的函数表达式,采用高精度显式欧拉流体动力学软件SPEED针对具有典型运动速度的球形装药空中爆炸过程进行了数值模拟,得到了沿装药不同对比距离和方位角处的动态爆炸冲击波超压峰值。在对数值模拟结果处理的基础上,经过数据拟合获得了动态爆炸冲击波超压场计算模型。校验结果表明,该模型能较准确描述动态爆炸冲击波超压分布,具有普适性。     

Height of burst explosions: a comparative study of numerical and experimental results

In the current work, we use the Constant Volume model and the numerical method, Regularized Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (RSPH) to study propagation and reflection of blast waves from detonations of the high explosives C-4 and TNT. The results from simulations of free-field TNT explosions are compared to previously published data, and good agreement is found. Measurements from height of burst tests performed by the Norwegian Defence Estates Agency are used to compare against numerical simulations. The results for shock time of arrival and the pressure levels are well represented by the numerical results. The results are also found to be in good agreement with results from a commercially available code. The effect of allowing different ratios of specific heat capacities in the explosive products are studied. We also evaluate the effect of changing the charge shape and height of burst on the triple point trajectory.      

Studies of the TNT equivalence of silver azide charges

Schlieren photographs and shadowgrams have been evaluated to provide the radius-time histories of the shocks generated by explosions of silver azide charges with masses in the milligram range. Series of photographs of the flow field produced by a single explosion were obtained with an image converter camera, to yield a time history of the shock trajectory. These data were used to determine the shock Mach number and subsequently the peak hydrostatic overpressure as a function of radius. The pressure-radius profile was compared with that from a unit charge of TNT to determine the TNT equivalence of silver azide as a function of peak pressure and of distance from the centre of a silver azide charge. The shock radius and time were also determined from single-shot visualizations of silver azide explosions. A new method of analysis was developed so that the charge mass and the TNT equivalence of an explosion could be derived from such a single radius-time measurement. The TNT equivalence factor for silver azide was shown to vary from 0.3 to 1.4, depending on the distance from the centre of the explosion. This agrees well with the generally reported equivalence factor of about 0.4 (Baker et al. 1983), which was probably based on the chemical composition of the material. Procedures are described by which the TNT equivalence factor can be calculated at any specified distance from a silver azide charge of known mass, or from a measurement of the shock radius and time, even when the charge mass is not known. This factor can then be used to determine the physical properties of the TNT blast wave which best describe those from the silver azide charge at the specified distance. A further result of these studies was that the scaling laws for blast waves, whose validity has been verified for charge masses ranging from a few grams to hundreds of tons, i.e., for charge masses varying over more than nine orders of magnitude, also apply for charges with masses of the order of one milligram.Received: 7 April 2003, Accepted: 1 July 2003, Published online: 5 August 2003     

浅埋炸药爆炸形貌及其冲击作用效应

为研究浅埋炸药爆炸形貌及其冲击作用效应,提出了一套新型试验工装,通过浅埋砂爆试验,系统探究了浅埋爆炸过程中冲击波的传播、爆炸产物与砂土的喷射轨迹、靶板的变形形貌以及爆炸载荷的空间分布情况。结果表明:浅埋爆炸在空气中产生冲击波,其传播速度大于爆炸产物与砂土的喷射速度;起爆后的爆炸产物与砂土迅速向外喷射,体积随时间不断膨胀,撞击到靶板后向四周扩散;通过特 殊设计的试验工装与靶板,定性得出浅埋砂爆载荷产生的冲量在空间中呈非均匀分布,即中间最大,向四周逐渐减小。对比分析2次不同试验,发现炸药埋深影响爆炸产物和砂土喷射时的相对位置:埋深较小时,爆炸产物会冲破覆盖的砂层,直接作用到靶板;埋深较大时,爆炸产物基本被砂层包覆,随砂土共同作用到靶板;此外,增大炸药埋深会延缓爆炸产物与砂土的喷射时间。砂土的类型直接影响靶板的变形形貌,按北约标准AEP-55配做的砂土不仅使靶板产生整体弯曲变形,还在靶板上形成大量凹坑,产生侵彻效果,而普通的河砂仅使靶板产生整体弯曲变形,无明显的侵彻效果。     

Analysis of reflected blast wave pressure profiles in a confined room

To understand the blast effects of confined explosions, it is necessary to study the characteristic parameters of the blast wave in terms of overpressure, impulse and arrival time. In a previous study, experiments were performed using two different scales of a pyrotechnic workshop. The main purpose of these experiments was to compare the TNT equivalent for solid and gaseous explosives in terms of mass to define a TNT equivalent in a reflection field and to validate the similitude between real and small scales. To study the interactions and propagations of the reflected shock waves, the present study was conducted by progressively building a confined volume around the charge. In this way, the influence of each wall and the origins of the reflected shock waves can be determined. The purpose of this paper is to report the blast wave interactions that resulted from the detonation of a stoichiometric propane-oxygen mixture in a confined room.