Conventional electromagnetic acoustic transducer development for optimum Lamb wave modes

Lamb waves are normally utilized for inspecting thin metal sheets. Wheel type probes using piezoelectric oscillators have generally been used as the sensors for Lamb waves. Recently, the electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) has been developed and is beginning to be used as a Lamb wave detector. We have developed a useful type of transducer for Lamb waves. The new EMAT consists of a meander coil with a narrow distance of 2.5 mm and has a symmetrical structure in the vertical direction for both surface sides. The new EMAT can generate Lamb waves with variable wavelengths corresponding to the frequency range from approximately 300 kHz to 2.5 MHz and multiple modes, and can also generate selected symmetrical and anti-symmetrical mode Lamb waves. It is demonstrated that the optimum Lamb wave mode could be produced by the appropriate positioning of the EMATs and controlling the phase (same or inversed) of the electrical signal driving the device. The described EMAT can be used to examine steel (or other material) sheets of different thickness. It is also shown that the S0 (0.3 MHz) mode Lamb wave is the most effective for the deepest (up to 6 mm) penetration.     

Feasibility of bone assessment with leaky Lamb waves in bone phantoms and a bovine tibia

In this study, the effect of cortical thickness variation on the propagation of leaky Lamb waves is investigated by using an axial transmission technique commonly used to characterize long bones. Three Lucite plates with thicknesses of 1, 3, and 5 mm as bone phantoms and one bovine tibia with a cortical thickness of 2 mm were used at various low frequencies. Experimental measurements in bone phantoms show that the peak frequency and amplitude of excited Lamb modes strongly depend on the thickness of the Lucite plate. In the bovine tibia, the S0 and A0 Lamb modes are consistently observed in the frequency-thickness region from 0.2 to 1.0 MHz mm, and can be effectively launched at a frequency of 200 kHz, suggesting 200 kHz to be the optimal signal frequency for in vivo clinical applications. It can be also seen that both modes are affected by the frequency-thickness product, but the effect is greater for the A0 mode. Hence, the A0 Lamb mode seems more sensitive to cortical thickness change due to aging and osteoporosis. This study suggests that the use of leaky Lamb waves is feasible for ultrasonic bone assessment.     

不锈钢折弯板裂纹Lamb波检测技术*

金属弯板广泛应用于车辆、船舶、飞机等大型装备结构件中，折弯处易形成应力集中产生裂纹，直接影响构件的使用安全和寿命。本文开展了不锈钢弯板裂纹缺陷Lamb波检测技术研究，计算了钢板的频散曲线，优选三种不同频率的S0模态：0.25MHz、0.5MHz、1MHz。利用COMSOL软件建立频域仿真模型，模拟了Lamb波在3mm厚“L”形弯板内部的传播情况，开展折弯板裂纹缺陷检测实验，并使用小波包变换的方法对实验信号进行分析。结果表明，经小波变换后，0.25MHz、0.5MHz、1 MHz的S0模态Lamb波均可用于裂纹缺陷的识别检测.     

High accuracy non-contact ultrasonic thickness gauging of aluminium sheet using electromagnetic acoustic transducers.

Aluminium sheet thickness has been calculated from ultrasonic data obtained using a send-receive, radially polarised electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT). Sheets in the thickness range between 0.1 and 0.5 mm have been measured using this non-contact approach at a stand-off of up to 1.5 mm. Normal incidence shear waves generated and detected in the sheet and the resultant waveforms have been processed using transit time measurements and Fourier analysis. Two broad band EMAT systems have been used to perform the measurements with centre frequencies of approximately 5 MHz and frequency content up to 10 and 20 MHz respectively. The most accurate measurements of thickness on thin sheets have been made using Fourier analysis and have yielded measurements accurate to within 0.2% (or 0.4 microm) for 280 microm thick aluminium sheets. Discrete shear wave echoes can be observed for sheets down to a thickness of 250 microm using the higher frequency EMAT system. However temporal measurements of these signals yield lower accuracy results when compared to the Fourier analysis method which is capable of sub-micron accuracy.     

Liquid level sensor using ultrasonic Lamb waves

This paper describes a novel, noninvasive method for measurement of liquid level in closed metal tanks that are under high pressure. It is based on the use of ultrasonic Lamb waves propagating along the tank wall. Contact with liquid substantially changes the characteristics of these waves and this can be used as an indicator of liquid presence. Theoretical analysis shows that the symmetric and antisymmetric Lamb wave modes, both fundamental and higher order, are sensitive to presence of the liquid. The optimal wave frequency depends on the thickness of the tank wall and wall material. A prototype level sensor based on this principle has been developed. It uses two pairs of wedge transducers to generate and detect Lamb waves propagating along the circumference of the gas tank. An operating frequency of 100 kHz is found to be optimal for use with tanks having a wall thickness of 30-50 mm. Prototype sensors developed under this program have been used successfully in oil fields in the far northern region of Russia.     

Volume and contact photo-emf in GaAs adaptive photodetectors

The generation of non-steady-state photo-emf in an adaptive photodetector made of semi-insulating GaAs is studied. Single-and double-frequency excitation modes are considered. It is found that a contact component of the photocurrent arises in the detector when the spatial frequencies of the interference pattern and phase modulation frequencies are low. The contact signal, being sensitive to a slow drift of the interference pattern, adversely affects the adaptive properties of the device. It is shown theoretically and confirmed experimentally that the contact emf signal at the frequency of basic phase modulation can effectively be suppressed by specially selecting the amplitude of additional phase modulation and the spatial frequency of the interference pattern. The spectral components of the non-steady-state emf signal are calculated for the double-frequency excitation mode.     

Lamb waves beam deviation due to small inclination of the test structure in air-coupled ultrasonic NDT

In Lamb waves inspection, an air-coupled transmitter transducer is oriented at a specific angle such that it generates a pure Lamb mode which propagates along the structure and interacts with any existing defects. For this inspection system, amplitude losses appears when small inclinations of the tested structure occurs. An important factor which affects directly these losses has been observed, it consists of the Lamb waves beam (LWB) deviation due to this bad alignment. In this work, a simple expression of LWB deviation has been deduced. This expression includes the test structure angle, phase velocity of generated Lamb mode, and the phase velocity of waves propagating in the coupled medium. A(0) Lamb mode is generated and detected in 1 mm thick aluminium plate sample using 1 MHz PZ27 piezoelectric transducers of 20 mm of diameter. Experimental LWB deviation angles are measured for different inclination angles of the test sample. A comparative study is released with theoretical results. For 1 degree of misalignment in the aluminium plate inclination, and transducers separation distance of 35 mm, LWB deviation angle is around 7 degrees and the amplitude is reduced by around 11%. Then, for a large separation distance, we must move the receiver transducer to detect the deviated LWB. It is shown that, for both theoretical and experimental studies, the LWB deviation and its measured amplitude are very sensitive to the alignment of the tested structure with respect to the transmitter-receiver transducers plane. In metal plates it is most satisfactory to use A(0) mode compared with S(0) mode since it is easy to excite and has a large amplitude and small deviation beam angles.     

Studies on conical and cylindrical resonators

Spectral features of conical and cylindrical Hartmann resonators are compared in this work through a systematic parametric study. Experiments have been conducted by varying the following parameters: stand-off distance, nozzle pressure ratio and cone angle. Resonance frequencies of conical cavities are found to be higher than those of cylindrical cavities of the same length. Low (∼kHz) and high frequency (∼10 kHz) modes are observed in the spectra. Low frequency modes show an oscillatory trend with stand-off distance. The high frequency tones are found to be independent of cavity geometry and cavity length, and are similar to jet impingement tones.     

High-frequency guided ultrasonic waves for hidden defect detection in multi-layered aircraft structures

Aerospace structures often contain multi-layered metallic components where hidden defects such as fatigue cracks and localized disbonds can develop, necessitating non-destructive testing. Employing standard wedge transducers, high frequency guided ultrasonic waves that penetrate through the complete thickness were generated in a model structure consisting of two adhesively bonded aluminium plates. Interference occurs between the wave modes during propagation along the structure, resulting in a frequency dependent variation of the energy through the thickness with distance. The wave propagation along the specimen was measured experimentally using a laser interferometer. Good agreement with theoretical predictions and two-dimensional finite element simulations was found. Significant propagation distance with a strong, non-dispersive main wave pulse was achieved. The interaction of the high frequency guided ultrasonic waves with small notches in the aluminium layer facing the sealant and on the bottom surface of the multilayer structure was investigated. Standard pulse-echo measurements were conducted to verify the detection sensitivity and the influence of the stand-off distance predicted from the finite element simulations. The results demonstrated the potential of high frequency guided waves for hidden defect detection at critical and difficult to access locations in aerospace structures from a stand-off distance.     

Edge resonance and zero group velocity Lamb modes in a free elastic plate

The local resonances of a free isotropic elastic plate are investigated using laser ultrasonic techniques. Experimental results are interpreted in terms of zero group velocity Lamb modes and edge mode. At a distance from the edge larger than the plate thickness a sharp resonance is observed at the frequency where the group velocity of the first symmetrical Lamb mode vanishes. Close to the edge of the plate, the resonance due to the edge mode dominates. Both zero group velocity and edge resonances appear at the theoretically predicted frequencies. These frequencies do not vary with the distance from the edge of the plate and the transition between the two modes of vibration, at about the plate thickness, is abrupt. Using a laser excitation on the edge, the amplitude profile of the normal displacement at the edge resonance frequency was determined.     

时频域独立元分析方法实现超声兰姆波的多模式分离

为方便兰姆波信号分析与模式定征,提出一种将短时傅里叶变换(Short-Time Fourier Transform,STFT)与独立元分析(Independent Component Analysis,ICA)相结合的多模式超声兰姆波识别方法。首先通过STFT将兰姆波时域信号投影至时频域,基于各模式信号在时频域相对独立的特点,利用ICA实现混叠模式分离。根据分离模式时频能量脊提取各模式群速度曲线,进而估计板厚。将方法运用于时域有限差分(Finite-Difference Time-Domain,FDTD)法仿真与钢板实验,分离得到A0、A1和S0三种模式。仿真与实验中平均群速度估计误差约为1.5%和2.0%,板厚估计误差约为0.3%和2.0%。仿真结果表明,在信噪比(Signal-to-Noise Ratio,SNR)不小于0 dB的情况下,时频域独立元分析方法均可实现兰姆波多模式分离、群速度曲线提取及板厚估计。      

Measurements of dispersion curves of leaky Lamb waves using a lensless line-focus transducer.

This paper presents a new method of measuring dispersion curves of leaky Lamb waves propagating in a thin plate. The measurement system is based on a lens-less line-focus transducer and its defocusing measurement technique. A new waveform processing method known as V(f, z) method is introduced for analyzing the measured waveforms and for extracting the dispersion relation. For two thin-plate samples, namely a 150 microm thick alumina plate and a 320 microm thick stainless steel plate, the dispersion curves of several lower order modes of leaky Lamb waves have been experimentally determined in the frequency range of few to 25 MHz. The experimental dispersion curves have then been compared with the theoretical ones. Excellent agreement is observed. It is then verify that this method indeed provides a convenient and accurate way for experimentally measuring dispersion curves of leaky Lamb waves of thin-plate samples.     

Wideband low frequency generation and detection of Lamb and Rayleigh waves using electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs)

This paper describes a new type of non-contact electromagnetic transducer (EMAT) that can be used to generate both Lamb and Rayleigh waves on metal samples. The generated waves are wideband and low frequency with a dominant frequency content centred at approximately 200 kHz extending to around 500 kHz. The transducers have been used on both aluminium and steel, but operate more efficiently on aluminium due to its lower electrical resistance and density when compared to steel.     

Design parameters of stainless steel plates for maximizing high frequency ultrasound wave transmission

This work validated, in a higher frequency range, the theoretical predictions made by Boyle around 1930, which state that the optimal transmission of sound pressure through a metal plate occurs when the plate thickness equals a multiple of half the wavelength of the sound wave. Several reactor design parameters influencing the transmission of high frequency ultrasonic waves through a stainless steel plate were examined. The transmission properties of steel plates of various thicknesses (1–7 mm) were studied for frequencies ranging from 400 kHz to 2 MHz and at different distances between plates and transducers. It was shown that transmission of sound pressure through a steel plate showed high dependence of the thickness of the plate to the frequency of the sound wave (thickness ratio). Maximum sound pressure transmission of ∼60% of the incident pressure was observed when the ratio of the plate thickness to the applied frequency was a multiple of a half wavelength (2 MHz, 6 mm stainless steel plate). In contrast, minimal sound pressure transmission (∼10–20%) was measured for thickness ratios that were not a multiple of a half wavelength. Furthermore, the attenuation of the sound pressure in the transmission region was also investigated. As expected, it was confirmed that higher frequencies have more pronounced sound pressure attenuation than lower frequencies. The spatial distribution of the sound pressure transmitted through the plate characterized by sonochemiluminescence measurements using luminol emission, supports the validity of the pressure measurements in this study.     

A non-contact technique for evaluation of elastic structures at large stand-off distances: applications to classification of fluids in steel vessels

A novel technique for non-contact evaluation of structures in air at large stand-off distances (on the order of several meters) has been developed. It utilizes a recently constructed air-coupled, parametric acoustic array to excite the resonance vibrations of elastic, fluid-filled vessels. The parametric array is advantageous for NDE applications in that it is capable of producing a much narrower beamwidth and broader bandwidth than typical devices that operate under linear acoustic principles. In the present experiments, the array operates at a carrier frequency of 217 kHz, and the sound field several meters from the source is described spectrally by the envelope of the drive voltage. An operating bandwidth of more than 25 kHz at a center frequency of 15 kHz is demonstrated. For the present application, the array is used to excite vibrations of fluid-filled, steel containers at stand-off distances of greater than 3 m. The vibratory response of a container is detected with a laser vibrometer in a monostatic configuration with the acoustic source. By analyzing the change in the response of the lowest order, antisymmetric Lamb wave as the interior fluid loading conditions of the container are changed, the fluid contained within the steel vessel is classified.     

超声Lamb波二次谐波发生效率分析与模式选择

在导波模式展开分析方法的基础上,提出激发效率参量来定量表征超声Lamb波积累二次谐波的发生效率。以P92钢板为例,理论计算得到了与频散曲线对应的理论激发效率参量分布图谱,从图谱中选择理论激发效率参量大小不同的两种基频Lamb波模式:纵波型S1模式和交点型A2/S2模式,分别测量这两种基频Lamb波模式在钢板中传播时产生的二次谐波信号。理论计算和实验测量结果表明,这两种基频Lamb波模式的理论和实验激发效率参量的比值基本一致,且激发效率参量较大的纵波型S1模式能激发出效率更高的二次谐波信号。研究结果表明激发效率参量可以有效的用于Lamb波二次谐波发生效率的表征及模式选择。      

Lamb waves and lamination detection

Lamb waves at the fundamental, and of higher orders, can be excited with sufficient intensity for lamination detection in thick plates if large-area probes and long acoustic pulses are used. Hot-rolled steel plates up to 16mm in thickness can be tested, and clear and unambiguous results obtained.     

小样本字典学习的兰姆波模态识别方法*

针对兰姆波多模态识别问题,提出了基于小样本字典学习的模态识别方法。将多层复合板的频散特性看作一个线性时不变系统,首先,根据频散知识模拟各个模态传播特定距离后的信号,提取走时和能量特征创建字典;其次,获取待测信号的走时特征,通过查询字典来识别兰姆波模态;最后,根据能量参数估计结果,实现待测信号中各模态信号的分离和重构。通过对三层粘接的AAA板(铝板-亚克力板-铝板,每层厚度为2mm)中传播距离为0.3m、0.5m的直达波和反射波的实验验证,结果显示该方法对A0、S0模态的有效识别和各个波包信号的准确重建。     

Ultrasonic Lamb wave diffraction tomography.

Ultrasonic guided waves, Lamb waves, allow large sections of aircraft structures to be rapidly inspected. Unlike conventional ultrasonic C-scan imaging that requires access to the whole inspected area, tomographic algorithms work with data collected over the perimeter. Because the velocity of Lamb waves depends on thickness the travel times of the fundamental modes can be converted into a thickness map of inspected region. Lamb waves cannot penetrate through holes and other strongly scattering defects and the assumption of straight wave paths, essential for many tomographic algorithms, fails. Diffraction tomography is a way to incorporate scattering effects into tomographic algorithms in order to improve image quality and resolution. This work describes the iterative reconstruction procedure developed for Lamb wave tomography and allowing for ray bending correction for imaging of moderately scattering objects.     

两侧有固体层负载时板中Lamb波的传播

本文研究了薄板二面有固体导负载时板中Ｌａｍｂ波的传播，从弹性波理论出发并结合应的边界条件，导出板中Ｌａｍｂ波的色散方程，数值计算表示，不管作为自由状态时板中Ｌａｍｂ波相速（板厚取定时）是大于或小于外层固体的声表面波波速，板中对称及反对称模式的Ｌａｍｂ波相速都随着外层固体层厚度增加而变化并且渐近于外层固体的声表面波波速，数值计算又表明，对很薄的板，板中对称及反对称模式的相速均随负载板的厚度呈线性变化