Numerical simulation of flow boiling for organic fluid with high saturation temperature in vertical porous coated tube

A semi-analytical model is developed for the prediction of flow boiling heat transfer inside vertical porous coated tubes. The model assumes that the forced convection and nucleate boiling coexist together in the annular flow regime. Conservations of mass, momentum, and energy are used to solve for the liquid film thickness and temperature. The heat flux due to nucleate boiling consists of those inside and outside micro-tunnels. To close the equations, a detailed analysis of various forces acting on the bubble is presented to predict its mean departure diameter. The active nucleation site density of porous layer is determined from the pool boiling correlation by introducing suppression factor. The flow boiling heat transfer coefficients of organic fluid (cumene) with high saturation temperature in a vertical flame-spraying porous coated tube are studied numerically. It is shown that the present model can predict most of the experimental values within ±20%. The numerical results also indicate that the nucleate boiling contribution to the overall heat transfer coefficient decreases from 50% to 15% with vapor quality increasing from 0.1 to 0.5.     

Local jet impingement boiling heat transfer with R113

An experimental study was performed to characterize the boiling heat transfer of impinging circular submerged jets on simulated microelectronic chips with a nominal area of 5 mm × 5 mm. The heat transfer modes included natural convection, partially developed nucleate boiling, fully developed nucleate boiling and critical heat flux. The study included the effects of jet parameters and fluid subcooling on the nucleate boiling. The results showed that the nucleate boiling data varied only with fluid subcooling regardless of jet parameters and that both the pool and impingement nucleate boiling curves at the same subcooling condition were well correlated. The high heat flux portions of the boiling curves with jet exit velocities greater than 10 m/s were corrected for the elevated saturation temperature. A new expression was developed with an interpolation method to construct the partially developed nucleate boiling curve.     

Boiling characteristics in small vertical tubes with closed bottom for nanofluids and nanoparticle-suspensions

An experimental study was carried out to understand the nucleate boiling characteristics and the critical heat flux (CHF) of water, the water based nanofluids and the water based nanoparticle-suspensions in vertical small heated tubes with a closed bottom. Here, the nanofluids consisted of the base liquid, the CuO nanoparticles and the surfactant. The nanoparticle-suspensions consisted of the base liquid and CuO nanoparticles. The surfactant was sodium dodecyl benzene sulfate. The study focused on the influence of the nanoparticles and surfactant on the nucleate boiling characteristics and the CHF. The experimental results indicated that the nanoparticle concentrations of the nanofluids and nanoparticle-suspensions in the tubes do not change during the boiling processes; the nanoparticles in the evaporated liquid are totally carried away by the steam. The boiling heat transfer rates of nanofluids are poorer than that of the base liquid. However, the boiling heat transfer rates of nanoparticle-suspensions are better than that of the base liquid. Comparing with the base liquid, the CHF of the nanofluids and the nanoparticle-suspensions is higher. The CHF is only related to nanoparticle mass concentration when the tube length and the tube diameter are fixed. The experiment confirm that there is a thin nanoparticle coating layer on the heated surface after the nanofluids boiling test but there is no coating layer on the heated surface after the nanoparticle-suspensions boiling test. This coating layer is the main reason that deteriorates the boiling heat transfer rates of nanofluids. An empirical correlation was proposed for predicting the CHF of nanofluids boiling in the vertical tubes with closed bottom.     

Transport-mechanisms in natural nucleate boiling in absence of external forces

In literature it is generally supposed that under terrestrial conditions the driving force in natural, nucleate boiling heat transfer is namely buoyancy caused by earth gravity, which is expressed in the empirical correlations for technical applications. However, experiments in microgravity performed during the past three decades demonstrate unanimously that up to a medium level heat flux the overall heat transfer in pool boiling is nearly independent from gravity. We refer and discuss in this paper on results of experiments performed with various liquids and liquid states and also using various heater geometries on mission platforms which provide low gravity for short and long periods. Beside the measurements of the experimental parameters to determine the heat transfer, we observed the macroscopic boiling process itself with movie films and videos in order to study the bubble dynamics. From these records we learned about the mechanisms of heat and vapour bubble transport, about the interaction between solid heater, superheated liquid, and vapour without gravity or other external force only generated by the bubbles themselves, and we observed significant details about the boiling process not recognized so far. These findings are essential for a better understanding of the complex physical process; and therefore they are important for the formulation of empirical correlations, and in future for numerical simulations to predict properly boiling heat transfer for technical applications.     

Flow boiling heat transfer characteristics of R123 and R134a in a micro-channel

Flow boiling heat transfer in a single circular micro-channel of 0.19 mm ID has been experimentally investigated with R123 and R134a for various experimental conditions: heat fluxes (10, 15, 20 kW/m²), mass velocities (314, 392, 470 kg/m² s), vapor qualities (0.2–0.85) and different saturation pressures (158, 208 kPa for R123; 900, 1100 kPa for R134a). The heat transfer trends between R123 and R134a are clearly distinguished. Whether nucleate boiling is suppressed at low vapor quality or not determines the heat transfer trend and mechanism in the flow boiling of micro-channels. High convective heat transfer coefficients in the two-phase flow of micro-channels enables nucleate boiling to be suppressed even at low vapor quality, depending on the wall superheat requirement for nucleate boiling. In the case of early suppression of nucleate boiling, specifically R123, heat transfer is dominated by evaporation of thin liquid films around elongated bubbles. In the contrary case, namely R134a, nucleate boiling is dominant heat transfer mechanism until its suppression at high vapor quality and then two-phase forced convection heat transfer becomes dominant. It is similar to the heat transfer characteristic of macro-channels except the enhancement of nucleate boiling and the short forced convection region.     

Analytical considerations of flow boiling heat transfer in metal-foam filled tubes

Flow boiling in metal-foam filled tube was analytically investigated based on a modified microstructure model, an original boiling heat transfer model and fin analysis for metal foams. Microstructure model of metal foams was established, by which fiber diameter and surface area density were precisely predicted. The heat transfer model for flow boiling in metal foams was based on annular pattern, in which two phase fluid was composed by vapor region in the center of the tube and liquid region near the wall. However, it was assumed that nucleate boiling performed only in the liquid region. Fin analysis and heat transfer network for metal foams were integrated to obtain the convective heat transfer coefficient at interface. The analytical solution was verified by its good agreement with experimental data. The parametric study on heat transfer coefficient and boiling mechanism was also carried out.     

Survey of heat transfer correlations in forced convection boiling

A critical survey was conducted of the most relevant correlations of boiling heat transfer for water in forced convection flow. Most of the investigations carried out on partial nucleate boiling and fully developed nucleate boiling have led to the formulation of correlations which cannot cover a wide range of operating conditions, due to the empirical approach considered. A comparative analysis is therefore required in order to define the accuracy of the proposed correlations, on the basis of the experimental data presently available. The survey allows the accuracy of the different calculating procedures to be evaluated. The results obtained also indicate the most reliable heat transfer correlations for the different operating conditions investigated. This survey was developed considering five pressure ranges (up to 180 bar) for both saturation and subcooled boiling conditions.     

Boiling heat transfer characteristics of nanofluids jet impingement on a plate surface

The jet boiling heat transfer of a bar water–CuO particle suspensions (nanofluids) jet impingement on a large flat surface was experimentally investigated. The experimental results were compared with those from water. The quantificational effects of the nanoparticles concentration and the flow conditions on the nucleate boiling heat transfer and the critical heat flux (CHF) were investigated. The experimental data showed that the jet boiling heat transfer for the water–CuO nanofluid is significantly different from those for water. The nanofluids have poor nucleate boiling heat transfer compared with the base fluid due to that a very thin nanoparticle sorption layer was formed on the heated surface. The CHF for the nanofluid increased compared with that of water. The reasons were that the solid–liquid contact angle decreased due to a very thin sorption layer on the heated surface and the jet and agitating effect of the nanoparticles on the subfilm layer enhance supply of liquid to the surface.     

Prediction of film boiling heat transfer coefficients for binary mixtures

Film boiling of binary liquid mixtures may be significantly different from that of single-component liquids due to the mass diffusion effect. A theoretical analysis is performed to outline the effects of mass diffusion phenomena on film boiling heat transfer process from a horizontal cylinder heating surface to the binary liquid mixtures of ethylene oxide/water and ethanol/benzene over whole range of compositions. These two binary systems are chosen for illustrating the strong and weak mass diffusion effects, respectively, on film boiling. Furthermore, a simple correlation for predicting heat transfer coefficient is proposed to demonstrate the idea that the dimensionless F factor can satisfactorily account for the mass diffusion effect on film boiling heat transfer of binary mixtures.     

Characteristics of heat transfer coefficient during nucleate pool boiling of binary mixtures

Experimental studies were conducted on heat transfer on a horizontal platinum wire during nucleate pool boiling in nonazeotropic binary mixtures of R12+R113, R134a+R113, R22+R113 and R22+R11, at pressures of 0.25 to 0.7 MPa and at heat fluxes up to critical heat flux. The substances employed were chosen such that the components of a given mixture had a large difference in saturation temperatures. The boiling features of the mixtures and the pure substances were observed by photography. The relationship between the boiling features and the reduction in heat transfer coefficient in binary mixtures is discussed in order to propose a correlation useful for predicting the experimental data measured over a wide range of low and high heat fluxes. It is shown that the correlation is applicable also to alcoholic mixtures. The physical role of k, which was introduced to evaluate the effect of heat flux on the reduction in heat transfer coefficient, is clarified based on the measured nucleate pool boiling heat transfer data and the visual observations of the boiling features. Received on 13 May 1997     

Enhanced heat transfer in confined pool boiling

We report the results of an experimental investigation of the heat transfer during nucleate boiling on a spatially confined boiling surface. The heat flux as a function of the boiling surface temperature was measured in pool boiling pots with diameters ranging from 15 mm down to 4.5 mm. It was found that a reduction of the pool diameter leads to an enhancement of the nucleate boiling heat flux for most of the boiling curve. Our experimental results indicate that this enhancement is not affected by the depth of the boiling pot, the material of the bounding wall, or the diameter of the inlet water supply. High-speed camera imaging shows that the heat transfer enhancement for the spatially confined pool boiling occurs in conjunction with a stable circulating flow, which is in contrast to the chaotic and mainly upward motion for boiling in larger pool diameters. An explanation for the enhancement of the heat transfer and the associated change in flow pattern is found in the singularisation of the nucleate boiling process.     

Experimental study of nucleate boiling heat transfer under low gravity conditions using TLCs for high resolution temperature measurements

Heat transfer in nucleate boiling is strongly influenced by a very small circular area in the vicinity of the three phase contact line where a thin liquid film approaches the heated wall. This area is characterised by high evaporation rates which trigger a local temperature drop in the wall. The wall temperature drop can be computed using an existing nucleate boiling model. To verify the complex model and the underlying assumptions, an experiment was designed with an artificial nucleation site in a thin electrically heated wall featuring a two-dimensional, high resolution temperature measurement technique using unencapsulated thermochromic liquid crystals and a high speed colour camera. The shape of the bubble is observed simultaneously with a second high speed camera. Experiments were conducted in a low gravity environment of a parabolic flight, causing larger bubble departure diameters than in normal gravity environments. Thus, it was possible to measure the evolution of the predicted temperature drop in a transient boiling process.     

Mechanistic models for pool nucleate boiling heat transfer: input and validation

Correlations for nucleate boiling heat transfer should be improved, or in the long term possibly be replaced, by the development of mechanistic simulations that include the non-uniform spacing and variable characteristics of the nucleation sites and non-linear interactions between the sites. This paper discusses the interactions that should be included in simulations and some lessons from a first attempt to validate a particular simulation against experimental spatio-temporal data for wall temperature. Input data for nucleation site positions and characteristics are a particular problem and the prospects for obtaining this data from measurements that are independent of boiling are discussed.     

沸腾换热的分形分析

研究沸腾换热过程是安全、高效地利用能源的基础.简要评述了沸腾换热(池内沸腾、流动沸腾、临界热流密度和纳米流体沸腾换热)的研究进展;详细论述了采用分形理论和方法研究沸腾换热分析解的理论和方法;指出了采用分形理论和方法有可能解决其它尚未解决的有关沸腾换热的若干课题和方向.      

Simulation of flow boiling in micro-channels: Effects of inlet flow rate and hot-spots

This paper presents the findings of a numerical study on the flow boiling in a micro-channel heat sink. The Navier-Stokes equations, energy equation, and the continuity equation are solved in a finite-volume framework using the front-tracking method. The numerical method is validated by comparison with the experimental results for a slug bubble growth, and vertical flow boiling. The numerical method is then used to study the effect of changing the inflow mass-velocity on the heat transfer coefficient, bubble size distribution, and the bubble nucleation frequency for a constant heat flux. The mean heat transfer coefficient of all the cases is found to be nearly twice that of the single-phase heat transfer coefficient. The bubble nucleation frequency is found to increase monotonically with the inflow mass-velocity. The bubble size distribution along the channel is found to become flatter as the mass-velocity is increased. We identify three distinct phases of the bubble evolution, namely the initial rapid growth phase, the boiling dominant phase, and finally the condensation dominant phase. Subsequently, the numerical method is used to study the effect of having a hot-spot near the bubble nucleation site on the heat transfer characteristics. It is found that the bubble nucleation frequency increases and the bubbles’ maximum volume decreases as the intensity of the hot-spot is increased for a fixed inlet flow rate. It is also observed that the average heat transfer coefficient does not change significantly with changing the intensity of the hot-spot, and that the bubble size distribution along the channel becomes flatter as the intensity of the hot-spot is increased.     

Nucleate boiling of water from plain and structured surfaces

Heat transfer from plain surface and from surfaces with distinct nucleation sites has been investigated under saturated pool boiling condition. Surfaces have been prepared with regular array of discrete nucleation sites formed by micro-drilling. Distilled water has been used as the boiling liquid. Out of various available correlations, Rohsenow correlation [W.M. Rohsenow, A method of correlating heat transfer data for surface boiling of liquids, Trans. ASME 74 (1952) 969–976] gives best agreement with the experimental data from plain surface at low degree of superheat. A mechanistic model also provides a good trend matching with the same experimental data. With the introduction of artificial nucleation sites substantial augmentation in heat transfer for distilled water compared to the plane surface has been noted. Continuous increase in nucleation site density increases the rate of heat transfer with a diminishing trend of enhancement. A correlation similar to that of Yamagata et al. [K. Yamagata, F. Hirano, K. Nishiwaka, H. Matsouka, Nucleate boiling of water on the horizontal heating surface, Mem. Fac. Eng. Kyushu 15 (1955) 98] has been developed to fit the experimental data of plane surface. Modification of the same correlation to take care of the nucleation site density has been developed and used to predict the experimental data from augmented surfaces.     

Experimental study on the influence of SO2 gas injection to pure liquids on pool boiling heat transfer coefficients

SO₂ gas is injected into the different pure liquids using new innovative method via meshed tubes. Many experiments have been performed to investigate the influence of gas injection process on the pool boiling heat transfer coefficient of pure liquids around the horizontal cylinder at different heat fluxes up to 114 kW m^?2. Results demonstrate that presence of SO₂ gas into the vapor inside the bubbles creates a mass transfer driving force between the vapor phase inside the formed bubbles and liquid phase and also between the gas/liquid interfaces. Local turbulences and agitations due to the gas injection process around the nucleation sites leads the pool boiling heat transfer coefficient to be dramatically enhanced. Besides, some of earlier well-known correlations were unable to obtain the reasonable values for the pool boiling heat transfer coefficients in this particular case. Therefore, the most accurate correlation among the examined correlations was modified to estimate the pool boiling heat transfer coefficient of pure liquids. Experimental data were in a good agreement with those of obtained by the new modified correlation with absolute average deviation of 10 %.     

Heterogeneous nucleation on ultra smooth surfaces

An experimental investigation is presented with heterogeneous nucleate boiling on ultra smooth metallic surfaces (30-365 nm RMS roughness), including brass, unpolished stainless steel, and electropolished stainless steel. The fluids used for the investigation are highly wetting pentane and butane. It is observed that the incipient superheat is low for all cases considered, despite the fact that no vapor trapping cavities are available for incipience at low superheat. These data provide further evidence that in addition to vapor trapping, another mechanism must be available for heterogeneous nucleation in boiling systems. The boiling curves are presented for the different surface/fluid combinations. It is found that the heat transfer rate on the brass surface is considerably better than that on the stainless steel surfaces due to the ease with which nucleation sites are formed. In contrast, nucleation site formation on stainless steel is considerably more sparse than that on brass.