Perturbation approaches of a planar crack in linear elastic fracture mechanics: A review

One current challenge of linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) is to take into account the non-linearities induced by the crack front deformations. For this, a suitable approach is the crack front perturbation method initiated by Rice (1985). It allows to update the stress intensity factors (SIFs) when the crack front of a planar crack is perturbed in its plane. This approach and its later extensions to more complex cases are recalled in this review. Applications concerning the deformation of the crack front when it propagates quasistatically in a homogeneous or heterogeneous media have been considered in brittle fracture, fatigue or subcritical propagation. The crack shapes corresponding to uniform SIF have been derived: cracks with straight or circular fronts, but also when bifurcations exist, with wavy front. For an initial straight crack, it has been shown that, in homogeneous media, in the quasistatic case, perturbations of all lengthscales progressively disappear unless disordered fracture properties yields Family and Vicsek (1985) roughness of the crack front. Extension of those perturbation approaches to more realistic geometries and to coalescence of cracks is also envisaged.     

界面裂纹萌生与扩展的分子动力学模拟

运用分子动力学模拟方法研究了裂纹在界面端处萌生与沿界面扩展的临界条件. 模拟考虑了一双相材料的3种模型，即构成90°/90°和 90°/180°夹角的两个界面端和一个界面裂纹. 模拟采用了包含原子区域与连续区域的并发型多尺度模型，即在界面端尖端和裂纹尖端附近 采用分子动力学(MD)方法，MD区域之外则按照线弹性有限元方法分析. 结果表明，在断裂启动时刻，3个模型沿界面的最大应力均达到界面理想强度；而且，其界 面能恰好足以克服界面材料的本征内聚能. 因此，界面端裂纹萌生与沿界面扩展的断裂条件可以通过界面理想强度和内聚能联系起来. 并基于模拟计算结果提出了界面断裂启动的统一准则.     

Integral Identities for a Semi-infinite Interfacial Crack in 2D and 3D Elasticity

The paper is concerned with the problem of a semi-infinite crack at the interface between two dissimilar elastic half-spaces, loaded by a general asymmetrical system of forces distributed along the crack faces. On the basis of the weight function approach and the fundamental reciprocal identity (Betti formula), we formulate the elasticity problem in terms of singular integral equations relating the applied loading and the resulting crack opening. Such formulation is fundamental in the theory of elasticity and extensively used to solve several problems in linear elastic fracture mechanics (for instance various classic crack problems in homogeneous and heterogeneous media).     

Dynamic interfacial crack propagation in elastic–piezoelectric bi-materials subjected to uniformly distributed loading

In transversely isotropic elastic solids, there is no surface wave for anti-plane deformation. However, for certain orientations of piezoelectric materials, a surface wave propagating along the free surface (interface) will occur and is called the Bleustein–Gulyaev (Maerfeld–Tournois) wave. The existence of the surface wave strongly influences the crack propagation event. The nature of anti-plane dynamic fracture in piezoelectric materials is fundamentally different from that in purely elastic solids. Piezoelectric surface wave phenomena are clearly seen to be critical to the behavior of the moving crack. In this paper, the problem of dynamic interfacial crack propagation in elastic–piezoelectric bi-materials subjected to uniformly distributed dynamic anti-plane loadings on crack faces is studied. Four situations for different combination of shear wave velocity and the existence of MT surface wave are discussed to completely analyze this problem. The mixed boundary value problem is solved by transform methods together with the Wiener–Hopf and Cagniard–de Hoop techniques. The analytical results of the transient full-field solutions and the dynamic stress intensity factor for the interfacial crack propagation problem are obtained in explicit forms. The numerical results based on analytical solutions are evaluated and are discussed in detail.     

Analytical solution for a Mode III crack in a 3D beam lattice

The brittle fracture behavior of an open cell foam is considered. The foam is modeled by an infinite lattice composed of elastic straight-line beam elements (struts) having uniform cross-sections and rigidly connected at the nodal points. The beams are parallel to the three mutually orthogonal lattice vectors thus forming a microstructure with rectangular parallelepiped cells.A semi-infinite Mode III crack is embedded in the lattice and, for the considered antiplane deformation, each node has three degrees of freedom, namely, the displacement parallel to the crack front and two rotations about the axes perpendicular to this direction. The analysis method hinges on the discrete Fourier transform, which allows to formulate the crack problem by means of the Wiener–Hopf equation. Its solution yields closed-form analytical expressions for the forces and the displacements at any cross-section, and, in particular, at the crack plane. An eigensolution for the traction-free crack faces and K-field remote loading is derived from the solution for the loaded crack using a limiting procedure. An analytical expression for the fracture toughness is derived from the eigensolution by comparing the remote stress field and the stresses in the near-tip struts. The obtained expression is found to be consistent with the known analytical and experimental results for Mode I deformation. It appears, that the dependence of the fracture toughness upon shape anisotropy ratio of the lattice material is non-monotonic. The optimal value of this parameter, which provides the maximum crack arresting ability is determined.     

Study on the mechanisms and quantitative law of mode I supersonic crack propagation

Continuum mechanics predicts that the propagation speed of non-equilibrium information in solids is limited by the longitudinal wave speed, so is crack propagation. However, solids are essentially discrete systems. In this paper, via theoretical analysis and numerical simulations, it is demonstrated in a straightforward way that non-equilibrium disturbance (e.g. force, displacement, energy, and so on) can propagate at a supersonic speed in discrete systems, although the magnitude of the disturbance attenuates very quickly. In dynamic fracture, a cascade of atomic-bond breaking events provides an amplification mechanism to counterbalance the attenuation of the disturbance. Therefore, supersonic crack propagation can be realized in a domino way. Another key factor for supersonic crack propagation is to ensure sufficient energy flowing into the crack tip. Since most energy can only be transferred at a speed limited by the longitudinal wave speed, the conditions for the occurrence of supersonic crack propagation are not easily met in most situations, unless there is high pre-stored energy along the crack path or continuous energy supply from the loading concomitantly moving with the crack tip. A quantitative relation between supersonic crack propagation speed and material properties and parameters is given, which implies that knowing all the classical macroscopic quantities is not enough in determining the supersonic crack propagation speed, and the microstructure does play a role. Moreover, it is interesting to note that fracture toughness affects the crack propagation speed in the subsonic regime, but not in the supersonic regime, because the deformation/stress is uniform in front of a supersonic crack where strength criterion dominates.     

An extended finite element method for modeling near-interfacial crack propagation in a layered structure

The extended finite element method (XFEM) is applied for the simulation of near-interfacial crack propagation in a metal–ceramic layered structure. An experimental evidence indicates that, in a ceramic–metal–ceramic sandwich structure, a near-interfacial crack in the ceramic layer can be drawn to or deflect away from the metal layer depending on the difference in elastic properties across the interface. To model near-interfacial fracture, only the Heaviside functions are used for the XFEM, and the vector level set method is employed for efficient evaluation of the enrichment functions. The crack propagation paths predicted by the XFEM simulation are found to be consistent with the experimental observation.     

Two dimensional numerical simulation of crack kinking from an interface under dynamic loading by time domain boundary element method

The hybrid time-domain boundary element method, together with the multi-region technique, is applied to simulate the dynamic process of propagation and/or kinking of an interface crack in a two-dimensional bi-material. The whole bi-material is divided into two regions along the interface. The traditional displacement boundary integral equations are employed with respect to each region. However, when the crack kinks into the matrix material, the non-hypersingular traction boundary integral equations are used with respect to the part of the crack in the matrix. Crack propagation along the interface is numerically modelled by releasing the nodes in the front of the moving crack-tip controlled by the fracture criterion. Kinking of the interface crack is controlled by a criterion developed from the quasi-static one. Once the crack kinks into the matrix, its propagation is modeled by adding new elements of constant length to the moving crack-tip controlled by a criterion extended from the quasi-static maximum circumferential stress. The numerical results of the crack growth trajectory for different material combinations are computed and compared with the corresponding experimental results. Good agreement between numerical and experimental results implies that the present boundary element numerical method can provide an excellent simulation for the dynamic propagation and deflection of an interface crack.     

Some dynamic problems for elastic materials with functional inhomogeneities: anti-plane deformations

The paper considers two dynamical problems for an isotropic elastic media with spatially varying functional inhomogeneity, the propagation of surface anti-plane shear SH waves, and the stress deformation state of an anti-plane vibrating medium with a semi-infinite crack. These problems are considered for five different types of inhomogeneity. It is shown that the propagation of surface anti-plane shear waves is possible in all these cases. The existence conditions and the speed of propagation of surface waves have been found. In the section devoted to the investigation of the stress deformation state of a vibrating medium with a semi-infinite crack, Fourier transforms along with the Wiener Hopf technique are employed to solve the equations of motion. The asymptotic expression for the stress near the crack tip is analyzed, which leads to a closed form solution of the dynamic stress intensity factor (DSIF). Here also the problem is considered for five different functional inhomogeneities. From the formulae for DSIF thus obtained one can see that the inhomogeneity can have both a quantitative and qualitative impact on the character of the stress distribution near the crack.Received: 25 July 2002, Accepted: 3 April 2003, Published online: 27 June 2003PACS: 83.20.Lr, 83.50.Tq, 83.50.Vr, 46.30.Nz     

Molecular-dynamics simulation-based cohesive zone representation of intergranular fracture processes in aluminum

A traction-displacement relationship that may be embedded into a cohesive zone model for microscale problems of intergranular fracture is extracted from atomistic molecular-dynamics (MD) simulations. An MD model for crack propagation under steady-state conditions is developed to analyze intergranular fracture along a flat Σ99 [1 1 0] symmetric tilt grain boundary in aluminum. Under hydrostatic tensile load, the simulation reveals asymmetric crack propagation in the two opposite directions along the grain boundary. In one direction, the crack propagates in a brittle manner by cleavage with very little or no dislocation emission, and in the other direction, the propagation is ductile through the mechanism of deformation twinning. This behavior is consistent with the Rice criterion for cleavage vs. dislocation blunting transition at the crack tip. The preference for twinning to dislocation slip is in agreement with the predictions of the Tadmor and Hai criterion. A comparison with finite element calculations shows that while the stress field around the brittle crack tip follows the expected elastic solution for the given boundary conditions of the model, the stress field around the twinning crack tip has a strong plastic contribution. Through the definition of a Cohesive-Zone-Volume-Element—an atomistic analog to a continuum cohesive zone model element—the results from the MD simulation are recast to obtain an average continuum traction-displacement relationship to represent cohesive zone interaction along a characteristic length of the grain boundary interface for the cases of ductile and brittle decohesion.     

Theoretical analysis of crack front instability in mode I+III

This paper focusses on the theoretical prediction of the widely observed crack front instability in mode I+III, that causes both the crack surface and crack front to deviate from planar and straight shapes, respectively. This problem is addressed within the classical framework of fracture mechanics, where the crack front evolution is governed by conditions of constant energy-release-rate (Griffith criterion) and vanishing stress intensity factor of mode II (principle of local symmetry) along the front. The formulation of the linear stability problem for the evolution of small perturbations of the crack front exploits previous results of Movchan et al. (1998) (suitably extended) and Gao and Rice (1986), which are used to derive expressions for the variations of the stress intensity factors along the front resulting from both in-plane and out-of-plane perturbations. We find exact eigenmode solutions to this problem, which correspond to perturbations of the crack front that are shaped as elliptic helices with their axis coinciding with the unperturbed straight front and an amplitude exponentially growing or decaying along the propagation direction. Exponential growth corresponding to unstable propagation occurs when the ratio of the unperturbed mode III to mode I stress intensity factors exceeds some “threshold” depending on Poisson's ratio. Moreover, the growth rate of helical perturbations is inversely proportional to their wavelength along the front. This growth rate therefore diverges when this wavelength goes to zero, which emphasizes the need for some “regularization” of crack propagation laws at very short scales. This divergence also reveals an interesting similarity between crack front instability in mode I+III and well-known growth front instabilities of interfaces governed by a Laplacian or diffusion field.     

Mechanics and fracture of crack tip deformable bi-material interface

Novel interface deformable bi-layer beam theory is developed to account for local effects at crack tip of bi-material interface by modeling a bi-layer composite beam as two separate shear deformable sub-layers with consideration of crack tip deformation. Unlike the sub-layer model in the literature in which the crack tip deformations under the interface peel and shear stresses are ignored and thus a “rigid” joint is used, the present study introduces two interface compliances to account for the effect of interface stresses on the crack tip deformation which is referred to as the elastic foundation effect; thus a flexible condition along the interface is considered. Closed-form solutions of resultant forces, deformations, and interface stresses are obtained for each sub-layer in the bi-layer beam, of which the local effects at the crack tip are demonstrated. In this study, an elastic deformable crack tip model is presented for the first time which can improve the split beam solution. The present model is in excellent agreements with analytical 2-D continuum solutions and finite element analyses. The resulting crack tip rotation is then used to calculate the energy release rate (ERR) and stress intensity factor (SIF) of interface fracture in bi-layer materials. Explicit closed-form solutions for ERR and SIF are obtained for which both the transverse shear and crack tip deformation effects are accounted. Compared to the full continuum elasticity analysis, such as finite element analysis, the present solutions are much explicit, more applicable, while comparable in accuracy. Further, the concept of deformable crack tip model can be applied to other bi-layer beam analyses (e.g., delamination buckling and vibration, etc.).     

A general solution method for an anti-plane shear crack dynamically accelerating along a bimaterial interface

We develop a general solution method for a dynamically accelerating crack under anti-plane shear conditions along the interface between two different homogeneous isotropic elastic materials. The crack is initially at rest, and after loading is applied the crack-tip speed which may accelerate up to the shear wave speed of the more compliant material. The analysis includes an exact, closed-form expression for the stress intensity factor for an arbitrary time-dependent crack-face traction, as well as expressions for computing the crack-face displacements and the stress in front of the crack. We also present some numerical examples for fixed loads and for loads moving with the crack tip, using a stress intensity factor fracture criterion, in order to examine the predicted effect of material mismatch on interfacial fracture.     

Steady growth of a crack with a rate and temperature sensitive cohesive zone

The steady-state dynamic propagation of a crack in a heat conducting elastic body is numerically simulated. Specifically, a mode III semi-infinite crack with a nonlinear temperature dependent cohesive zone is assumed to be moving in an unbounded homogeneous linear thermoelastic continuum. The numerical results are obtained via a semi-analytical technique based on complex variables and integral transforms. The relation between the thermo-mechanical properties of the failure zone and the resulting crack growth regime are investigated. The results show that temperature dependent solutions are substantially different from purely mechanical ones in that their existence and stability strongly depends on the cohesive zone thermal properties.     

Crack front pinning by design in planar heterogeneous interfaces

The propagation of an interfacial crack front along the weak plane of a thin film stack is considered. A simple patterning technique is used to create a toughness contrast within this perfectly two-dimensional weak interface. The transparency of the specimens allows us to directly observe the propagation of the purely planar crack obtained during a DCB (double cantilever beam) test. The effect on the crack front morphology of macroscopic unidimensional patterns in the direction of propagation is studied. In these weak pinning conditions, the geometry of the front quantitatively agrees with the first-order expansion proposed by Gao and Rice [1989. First-order perturbation analysis of crack trapping by arrays of obstacles. J. Appl. Mech. 56, 828-836] which accounts for the effect of the interfacial crack front geometry on the stress intensity factor.     

Statistics of the deformation of the front of a tunnel-crack propagating in some inhomogeneous medium

We present a statistical analysis of some geometrical features of the front of a tensile tunnel-crack propagating quasistatically, according to some Paris-type law, in some elastic solid with spatially varying Paris constant. The work is based on an earlier formula of the authors, which provides the first-order change of the distribution of the mode I stress intensity factor along the front of a tunnel-crack, arising from some small but otherwise arbitrary in-plane perturbation of this front. The quantities studied include the power spectrum and the autocorrelation function of the deviation of the two parts of the front from reference straight lines, the autocorrelation function of the derivative of this deviation in the direction of the crack front, the mean squared fluctuation of the deviation, and its correlation distance. The various measures of the magnitude of the deviation of the front from straightness are all found to increase in time at a considerable rate, which means in some sense that the “wavyness” of the front continuously grows. However, the correlation distance of the deviation also increases, which mitigates the preceding conclusion, since it means in another sense that the crack front tends to “straighten back” in time. Also, comparisons are made with the cases of a semi-infinite crack propagating quasistatically or dynamically, using some results of Rice and coworkers for the latter case. The rate of growth of the various measures of the magnitude of the deviation from straightness is much larger for the tunnel-crack than for the semi-infinite one. This is because the finite width of the tunnel-crack induces a “destabilizing” effect of the straight configuration of the front for sinusoidal perturbations with large wavelengths, which is typical of such finite crack geometries.     

Coplanar propagation paths of 3D cracks in infinite bodies loaded in shear

Bower and Ortiz, recently followed by Lazarus, developed a powerful method, based on a theoretical work of Rice, for numerical simulation of planar propagation paths of mode 1 cracks in infinite isotropic elastic bodies. The efficiency of this method arose from the need for the sole 1D meshing of the crack front. This paper presents an extension of Rice’s theoretical work and the associated numerical scheme to mixed-mode (2 + 3) shear loadings. Propagation is supposed to be channeled along some weak planar layer and to remain therefore coplanar, as in the case of a geological fault for instance. The capabilities of the method are illustrated by computing the propagation paths of cracks with various initial contours (circular, elliptic, rectangular, heart-shaped) in both fatigue and brittle fracture. The crack quickly reaches a stable, almost elliptic shape in all cases. An approximate but accurate analytic formula for the ratio of the axes of this stable shape is derived.     

Influence of plasticity on interface toughness in a layered solid with residual stresses

For crack growth along an interface between two adjacent elastic–plastic materials in a layered solid, the resistance curve behaviour is analysed by approximating the behaviour in terms of a bi-material interface under small scale yielding conditions. Thus, it is assumed that the layers are thick enough so that the extent of the plastic regions around the crack tip are much smaller than the thickness of the nearest layers. The focus is on the effect of initial residual stresses in the layered material, or on T-stress components induced during loading. The fracture process is represented in terms of a cohesive zone model. It is found that the value of the T-stress component in the softer material adjacent to the interface crack plays a dominant role, such that a negative value of this T-stress gives a significant increase of the interface fracture toughness, while a positive value gives a reduction of the fracture toughness.     

Interface crack growth for anisotropic plasticity with non-normality effects

A plasticity model with a non-normality plastic flow rule is used to analyze crack growth along an interface between a solid with plastic anisotropy and an elastic substrate. The fracture process is represented in terms of a traction-separation law specified on the crack plane. A phenomenological elastic–viscoplastic material model is applied, using an anisotropic yield criterion, and in each case analyzed the effect of non-normality is compared with results for the standard normality flow rule. Due to the mismatch of elastic properties across the interface the corresponding elastic solution has an oscillating stress singularity, and with conditions of small scale yielding this solution is applied as boundary conditions on the outer edge of the region analyzed. Crack growth resistance curves are calculated numerically, and the effect of the near-tip mode mixity on the steady-state fracture toughness is determined. It is found that the steady-state fracture toughness is quite sensitive to differences in the initial orientation of the principal axes of the anisotropy relative to the interface.     

基于单元破裂的岩石裂纹扩展模拟方法

传统离散元方法在处理破裂问题时, 采用界面上的准则进行判断, 裂纹只能沿着单元边界扩展. 当物理问题存在宏观或微观裂隙时, 在界面上应用准则具有其合理性; 而裂纹沿着单元边界扩展, 使得裂纹路径受网格影响较大, 扩展方向受到限制. 针对上述情况, 可以基于单元破裂的方式, 构建连续- 非连续单元法, 并应用于岩石裂纹扩展问题的模拟. 该方法在连续计算时, 将单元离散为具有物理意义的弹簧系统, 在局部坐标系下由弹簧特征长度、面积求解单元变形和应力, 通过更新局部坐标系和弹簧特征量, 可进一步计算块体大位移、大转动, 连续问题计算结果与有限元一致, 同时提高了计算效率. 在此基础上, 引入最大拉应力与莫尔—库伦的复合准则, 判断单元破裂状态和破裂方向, 并采用局部块体切割的方式, 在单元内形成初始裂纹. 裂纹两侧相应增加新的计算节点, 同时引入内聚力模型描述裂纹两侧的法向、切向作用与张开度及滑移变形之间的关系. 按此方式, 裂纹尖端处的扩展路径可穿过单元内部和单元边界, 在扩展方向的选取上更为准确. 最后, 通过三点弯曲梁、单切口平板拉伸、双切口试样等典型数值试验, 模拟裂纹在拉伸、压剪等各种应力状态下的扩展问题, 并对岩石单轴压缩试验的破坏过程进行模拟, 分析裂纹形成与应力—应变曲线各阶段之间的对应关系. 结果表明: 连续—非连续单元法通过单元内部破裂的方式, 可以显示模拟裂纹萌生、扩展、贯通直至形成宏观裂缝的过程.