Chemists around the World,Take Your Part in the Circular Economy!

Based on recent examples and initiatives reported in the literature, this concept article discusses how chemistry can contribute to the circular economy approach in order to improve our current and future economical, societal, and environmental system. Through five proposed levels of contribution, chemists can take a significant part in this global approach via the consideration of green chemistry principles, the simplification of syntheses, the limitation of complex products preparation, the efficient utilization of resources but also the novel ways of waste valorization. A more systematic and generalized environmental and economic assessment from the lab-scale is also recommended. At last, chemists have to work even more collaboratively and in a multidisciplinary way, within chemistry and beyond.     

Electrochemical treatment of slaughterhouse and dairy wastewater: Toward making a sustainable process

The industrial processing of meat and dairy production uses large amounts of fresh water, therefore, generates a significant volume of wastewaters. The treatment of these effluents has been performed using different technologies from biological to electrochemical advanced oxidation processes. Under the circular economy concept, the lack of available freshwater resources has increased the interest in reusing wastewater from slaughterhouses, and even in the recovering of by-products.This article reviews the application of electrochemical treatments to slaughterhouse and dairy wastewaters. In addition, an overview of added-value products and energy recovery from these industrial wastewaters is also presented with future perspectives.     

Shear-driven pumping and Fourier transform detection for on chip circular chromatography applications

A circular, shear-driven pumping system combined with Fourier Transform detection has been developed for the application of chip based cyclic chromatography. Using this system, it is possible to perform an injection of a sample plug into a circular micro-channel and then drive the sample through the channel, using shear flow induced by a rotation stage. High pumping rates at uniform speeds are attainable with this system with very little heat production. Typical pumping rates of up to 1.423 mm s(-1) +/- 2 microm s(-1) were used in experiments although much higher rates >14 mm s(-1) are also possible with this system. Fluorescence detection was used to detect a sample plug of Coumarin dyes, flowing around the channel. A coating of porous polymethacrylate was used to immobilise RP-HPLC beads onto the glass surface and was applied to the glass micro-channel by selective photopolymerisation. This coating acted as a stationary phase and differences in retention time were observed for an injection of Coumarin dyes for different methanol-water, mobile phase ratios. Full sample retention occurred for 30 : 70 (v/v) methanol-water whereas no retention occurred for 92 : 8 (v/v) methanol-water which can be expected for such a reverse phase, open tubular system. Fourier transform detection applied to the fully retained and non-retained cases showed frequency domain data from a single detection point corresponding to that which may be expected from shear flow theory.     

Building a new mind set in tomorrow fashion development through circular strategy models in the framework of waste management

Energy, food, and clothing are the three main components of humanity. Each one individually and all together contribute to climate change and CO₂ emissions, to the consumption of natural resources, as well as influencing social attitude and behaviour. The global trends of the fashion industry are projected to expand in value from $1.5 trillion in 2020 to about $2.25 trillion by 2025, presenting that the fashion request is on continual growth. As natural resources (e.g., water) to produce clothes and shoes are limited nowadays, more resource-efficient production pathways must be identified; moreover, natural materials must replace plastic fibres, natural colours must replace synthetic ones, and ‘buy-and throw-way philosophy’ must turn into ‘buy-less-and-these-are-needed’ as so to reduce the environmental footprint of the fashion sector. This work emphasized the necessity of developing a new business circular model for the fashion industry with the potential of providing plethora of economic opportunities in the framework of waste management. Clear vision and new strategy development in the fashion sector is proposed, including the involvement of customers, businesses and policy makers, driven by the promotion of circular economy through knowledge exchange, education as well as regulatory relief measures for a synergic transition towards the circularity of the fashion industry.     

Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Cellulose Nanofibres Production Routes from Virgin and Recycled Raw Materials

Nanocellulose-based materials are attracting an increasing interest for the positive role they could play in sustainable development; being originated from renewable resources. Moreover, cellulose has a high potential of recycling from both post-consumer waste and industrial waste. Both factors, i.e., recyclability and renewable resources; results are also extremely favourable in the perspective of circular economy. Despite all these positive aspects, an industrial production has yet to start. At the lab scale, many preparation methods of cellulose nanofibres (CNF) are available; here, the three most common are analysed: (1) enzymatic pre-treatment followed by homogenisation (ENZHO), (2) oxidative pre-treatment combined with homogenisation (TOHO) or (3) oxidative pre-treatment followed by sonication (TOSO). All three processes have been experimentally carried out starting from both virgin and recycled cellulose from industrial waste sludge. The environmental sustainability of these three routes is estimated by the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) using experimental lab scale data. In this scenario, the comparative LCA has pointed out a superior performance of the ENZHO process, followed by TOHO and, lastly, by TOSO. The influence of energy consumption on the final results has been further investigated by a sensitivity analysis, showing that the TOHO and TOSO routes could reach similar performances by scaling-up the process from the laboratory. The different typology of CNF obtained by conducting the ENZHO process with respect to the TEMPO-mediated oxidation approach is also outlined as an additional element to be considered for the final selection of a suitable process.     

Separation of different physical forms of plasmid DNA using a combination of low electric field strength and flow in porous media: effect of different field gradients and porosity of the media

The retention of different physical forms of DNA by an electric field in a chromatography system was studied. We were able to effectively separate the supercoiled and the open circular forms of plasmid DNA using this type of electrochromatography system. Chromatography columns were packed with porous beads, and an axial electric field was applied so that convective buffer flow opposed the direction of electrophoresis of the DNA. A model system composed of approximately equal amounts of the super-coiled and open circular forms of the plasmid pBR 322 (4322 base pairs) was used to test the separation. Chromatography beads (agarose-based) with different porosities were used to determine the effect of the stationary phase on the separation. The porous media did not have a major effect on the separation, but the best separations were obtained using porous chromatography media made with the highest agarose concentration (10% agarose). Selective elution of plasmid DNA with different forms was obtained by either increasing the flow rates or decreasing the electric field strength (by steps or a gradient). In all the separations, the more compact supercoiled form of the plasmid was retained less strongly than either the open circular form (nicked) or the linear form. High molecular weight host genomic DNA was more strongly retained than the plasmid DNA. Increasing the ionic strength of the buffer improved resolution and capacity. The capacity of the separation was determined by injecting increasing amounts of plasmid DNA. Satisfactory separation was obtained at sample loading of up to 360 microg of total DNA on a column with dimensions of 2.5 by 11 cm (bed volume of 54 mL). The retention of DNA depends upon a counter-current flow of electrophoresis and convective flow and could be regarded as a type of field flow fractionation. The retention of the DNA by the electric field and flow is discussed in relation to the diffusion coefficients of the DNA.     

A process for preparation of anticancer drug 9-nitro camptothecin

Camptothecin and some of its semisythetic derivatives such as topotecan, irinotecan and 9-nitrocamptothecin, have exhibited strong antitumor activity against various experimental tumor model. The water insoluble 9-nitrocamptothecin demonstrated very potent antitumor activity against many different types of human cancers and HIV. Literature procedures for preparing 9-nitrocamptothecin are direct nitration of camptothecin using a concentrated nitric/concentrated sulfuric acid system or a combin…     

Modulation of Triterpene Saponin Production: In Vitro Cultures,Elicitation, and Metabolic Engineering

Saponins are secondary metabolites that are widely distributed in the plant kingdom and are often the active components in medicinal herbs. Hence, saponins have a potential for the pharmaceutical industry as antibacterial, virucidal, anti-inflammatory, and anti-leishmanial drugs. However, their commercial application is often hindered because of practical problems, such as low and variable yields and limited availability of natural resources. In vitro cultures provide an alternative to avoid problems associated with field production; they offer a system in which plants are clonally propagated and yield is not affected by environmental changes. Additionally, treatment of in vitro cultures with elicitors such as methyl jasmonate may increase the production of saponins up to six times. In vitro cultures are amenable to metabolic engineering by targeting specific genes to enhance saponin production or drive production towards one specific class of saponins. Hitherto, this approach is not yet fully explored because only a limited number of saponin biosynthesis genes are identified. In this paper, we review recent studies on in vitro cultures of saponin-producing plants. The effect of elicitation on saponin production and saponin biosynthesis genes is discussed. Finally, recent research efforts on metabolic engineering of saponins will also be presented.     

Feedstock flexibility in sustainable chemistry: Bridging sectors still not sufficiently familiar with each other – Showcases of ongoing and emerging initiatives

The replacement of the fossil resources historically employed for chemicals' production is of major scientific interest the last decades, as a result of the environmental issues arisen and the price versatility of petroleum. Biotechnological routes present promising alternatives for the production of various platform chemicals such as succinic, lactic and muconic acids among others. The utilisation of agricultural and agro-industrial waste and by-product streams would not only reduce the overall production cost but also it would assist towards the direction of the bio-economy era. This review presents some important chemicals produced from renewable feedstocks, aiming to bridge the waste suppliers to the chemical production industries.     

Nachhaltige Bausteine für die Kunststoff‐Herstellung

Plant oils are currently the principle resource for the production of bio‐based, high performance polymers, such as polyamides. This process is facilitated by giant strides in chemical catalysis and biotechnology, which allows conversion of vegetable oils in “drop‐in” chemical building blocks. These bio‐based polymer building blocks have equivalent chemical and physical properties as well as similar cost structures compared to conventional petrochemical synthesis feedstock. This allows integration of bio‐based resources into industrial production processes without significant adaptations in logistics or process configuration. However, only use of synergies between chemical and biotechnological unit operations will in future provide for sustainable and eco‐efficient process designs. To allow sustainable supply of bio‐oils to a growing chemical industry without a significant impact on food production demands development of alternative bio‐oil sourcing strategies. In this respect the development of processes for the production of microbial oils, which have equivalent chemical properties to their plant counterparts is imperative. One leading option is the biotechnological conversion of agricultural and food waste streams into microbial oils by combining enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentative production using oleaginous organisms, such as yeasts.     

From Fish Waste to Value: An Overview of the Sustainable Recovery of Omega-3 for Food Supplements

The disposal of food waste is a current and pressing issue, urging novel solutions to implement sustainable waste management practices. Fish leftovers and their processing byproducts represent a significant portion of the original fish, and their disposal has a high environmental and economic impact. The utilization of waste as raw materials for the production of different classes of biofuels and high-value chemicals, a concept known as “biorefinery”, is gaining interest in a vision of circular economy and zero waste policies. In this context, an interesting route of valorization is the extraction of omega-3 fatty acids (ω-3 FAs) for nutraceutical application. These fatty acids, such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) have received attention over the last decades due to their beneficial effects on human health. Their sustainable production is a key process for matching the increased market demand while reducing the pressure on marine ecosystems and lowering the impact of waste production. The high resale value of the products makes this waste a powerful tool that simultaneously protects the environment and benefits the global economy. This review aims to provide a complete overview of the sustainable exploitation of fish waste to recover ω-3 FAs for food supplement applications, covering composition, storage, and processing of the raw material.     

Bio-refinery as the bio-inspired process to bulk chemicals

This paper describes several examples of knowledge-intensive technologies for the production of chemicals from biomass, which take advantage of the biomass structure in a more efficient way than the production of fuels or electricity alone. The depletion in fossil feedstocks, increasing oil prices, and the ecological problems associated with CO(2) emissions are forcing the development of alternative resources for energy, transport fuels, and chemicals, such as the replacement of fossil resources with CO(2) neutral biomass. Allied with this is the conversion of crude oil products utilizes primary products (ethylene, etc.) and their conversion into either materials or (functional) chemicals with the aid of co-reagents such as ammonia, by various process steps to introduce functionalities such as -NH(2) into the simple structures of the primary products. Conversely, many products found in biomass often contain functionalities. Therefore, it is attractive to exploit this in order to by-pass the use, and preparation of, co-reagents as well as to eliminate various process steps by utilizing suitable biomass-based precursors for the production of chemicals.     

Propagation of photosensitive chemical waves on the circular routes

The propagation of chemical waves in the photosensitive Belousov-Zhabotinsky (BZ) reaction was investigated using an excitable field in the shape of a circular ring or figure "8" that was drawn by computer software and then projected on a film soaked with BZ solution using a liquid-crystal projector. For a chemical wave in a circular reaction field, the shape of the chemical wave was investigated depending on the ratio of the inner and outer radii. When two chemical waves were generated on a field shaped like a figure "8" (one chemical wave in each circle) as the initial condition, the location of the collision of the waves either was constant or alternated depending on the degree of overlap of the two circular rings. These experimental results were analyzed on the basis of a geometrical discussion and theoretically reproduced on the basis of a reaction-diffusion system using a modified Oregonator model. These results suggest that the photosensitive BZ reaction may be useful for creating spatio-temporal patterns depending on the geometric arrangement of excitable fields.     

Efficient recovery of rare earth elements from coal based resources: a bioleaching approach

Rare earth element (REE) resources in coal-related materials are vast. Assuming a coal production rate of 600 million short tons per year with an average REE content of 200 ppm, the potential REE resource is 120,000 tons per year, which is similar to the annual global production of REEs. Most of those resources that are associated with coal-related materials are found in association with the gangue or ash-based content from the coal ore. Under normal coal plant operation, the REEs often end up in refuse piles or tailings impoundments. In many cases, these REEs can be recovered at low cost using appropriate coal preparation, heap leaching, solvent extraction and/or selective precipitation, followed by subsequent separation and purification of individual REEs. In the present research, the processing approach uses a natural pyrite stream, which was removed during coal cleaning and used to enhance leaching. Bio-oxidation has been used commercially to accelerate leaching, and this approach has been applied to coal-based materials. The ferric ions generated from bio-oxidation oxidize sulfide minerals such as pyrite, which generates acid. Both acid and ferric ions are helpful for leaching REEs, as well as for removing residual sulfides, thereby preventing future acid mine drainage and related liabilities. It can be seen that, recovery of REEs from coal waste materials can enable coal producers to use untapped REEs resources to produce revenue and extend resource life while simultaneously reducing future environmental issues and costs.     

Emergy Based Analysis of Italian Electricity Production System

The continuously increasing demand for electric power together with the demand of environmental friendly technologies require a deep acknowledgement of the directions to give to electric power production in order to satisfy both necessities. The aim of this work is to evaluate the sustainability of Italian electric system by using the emergy function, a methodology developed in the early80s by Odum, and its correlated indices. Emergy is a thermodynamic based function that calculates all the fluxes of energy requested to obtain a product going backward to the solar energy invested. We analyzed all the inputs concurring to the yield of electricity taking into account not only the final phases of the production but also all the sources and materials that had been necessary for the system to operate. We have performed a wide analysis of all the different types of production focusing on thermoelectric sector. We have obtained not only a thermodynamic analysis of electricity production but also an evaluation of the sustainability of the entire process and a scenario for a correct exploitation of resources. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The Cradle-to-Cradle Life Cycle Assessment of Polyethylene terephthalate: Environmental Perspective

Over the last several years, the number of concepts and technologies enabling the production of environmentally friendly products (including materials, consumables, and services) has expanded. One of these ways is cradle-to-cradle (C2C) certified^TM. Life cycle assessment (LCA) technique is used to highlight the advantages of C2C and recycling as a method for reducing plastic pollution and fossil depletion by indicating the research limitations and gaps from an environmental perspective. Also, it estimates the resources requirements and focuses on sound products and processes. The C2C life cycle measurements for petroleum-based poly (ethylene terephthalate) (PET) bottles, with an emphasis on different end-of-life options for recycling, were taken for mainland China, in brief. It is considered that the product is manufactured through the extraction of crude oil into ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. The CML analysis method was used in the LCIA for the selected midpoint impact categories. LCA of the product has shown a drastic aftermath in terms of environmental impacts and energy use. But the estimation of these consequences is always dependent on the system and boundary conditions that were evaluated throughout the study. The impacts that burden the environment are with the extraction of raw material, resin, and final product production. Minor influences occurred due to the waste recycling process. This suggests that waste degradation is the key process to reduce the environmental impacts of the production systems. Lowering a product’s environmental impact can be accomplished in a number of ways, including reducing the amount of materials used or choosing materials with a minimal environmental impact during manufacture processes.     

Biohydrometallurgy for Rare Earth Elements Recovery from Industrial Wastes

Biohydrometallurgy recovers metals through microbially mediated processes and has been traditionally applied for the extraction of base metals from low-grade sulfidic ores. New investigations explore its potential for other types of critical resources, such as rare earth elements. In recent times, the interest in rare earth elements (REEs) is growing due to of their applications in novel technologies and green economy. The use of biohydrometallurgy for extracting resources from waste streams is also gaining attention to support innovative mining and promote a circular economy. The increase in wastes containing REEs turns them into a valuable alternative source. Most REE ores and industrial residues do not contain sulfides, and bioleaching processes use autotrophic or heterotrophic microorganisms to generate acids that dissolve the metals. This review gathers information towards the recycling of REE-bearing wastes (fluorescent lamp powder, spent cracking catalysts, e-wastes, etc.) using a more sustainable and environmentally friendly technology that reduces the impact on the environment.     

Sustainable Design of Structural and Functional Polymers for a Circular Economy

To achieve a sustainable circular economy, polymer production must start transitioning to recycled and biobased feedstock and accomplish CO₂ emission neutrality. This is not only true for structural polymers, such as in packaging or engineering applications, but also for functional polymers in liquid formulations, such as adhesives, lubricants, thickeners or dispersants. At their end of life, polymers must be either collected and recycled via a technical pathway, or be biodegradable if they are not collectable. Advances in polymer chemistry and applications, aided by computational material science, open the way to addressing these issues comprehensively by designing for recyclability and biodegradability. This Review explores how scientific progress, together with emerging regulatory frameworks, societal expectations and economic boundary conditions, paint pathways for the transformation towards a circular economy of polymers.     

Solar hydrogen production from cellulose biomass with enzymatic and artificial photosynthesis system

Bio-hydrogen gas production from renewable resources of timber waste, including cellulose, lignin, etc., is important in the environmental science and energy source development fields. A solar hydrogen production system by coupling waste paper including cellulose biomass with cellulase and glucose dehydrogenase (GDH), and hydrogen production with platinum nano-particle via the photoreduction of methylviologen (MV²⁺) using the visible light-harvesting function of Mg Chl-a, is developed.     

Environmental contamination by technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive material - TENORM: A case study of phosphogypsum

Summary In the last decades considerable attention has been given to technologically enhanced natural occurring radioactive material (TENORM). Within this frame, of particular concern is the phosphate fertilizer industry, located in Cubat?o, S?o Paulo State, Southwest Brazil. This industry is responsible for the production of 69 million tons of phosphogypsum waste, which is stockpiled in the surrounding environment. This waste concentrates radionuclides of the natural series originally present in the phosphate rocks used as raw material. This study aims to evaluate the environmental impact of such activities in the sediments of the estuarine system. Contents of natural radionuclides from thorium and uranium series were measured in sediments from Cubat?o estuarine system, using high-resolution gamma-spectrometry. U and Th were determined by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). It was observed that U and Th concentration is higher in the rivers close to the phosphogypsum piles, at least five points were identified as being affected by anthropogenic factors.