一种新型转捩技术在跨音速风洞中的应用

针对传统金刚砂粗糙带在跨音速增压风洞实验中易脱落、随机误差大等问题,设计一种新型斑点型粗糙带,解决了大动压条件下,在模型表面实现固定转捩的问题。应用萘升华流动显示技术,分析了固定转捩和自由转捩条件下边界层变化情况;由测力实验得到GBM-01(AGARD-B)标准模型不同Ma数下的气动特性, 并与国外大风洞实验数据进行了比较。实验结果表明：新型斑点型粗糙带能够将层流边界层转变为湍流边界层,可以获得具有高雷诺数特点的数据,且强度高,是一种具有广阔应用前景的新型转捩技术。     

Interference effects of two and three super-tall buildings under wind action

Most previous investigations on interference effects of tall buildings under wind actions focused on the wind induced interference effects between two buildings,and the interference effects of three or more buildings have seldom been studied so far due to the huge workload involved in experiments and data processing.In this paper,mean and dynamic force/response interference effects and peak wind pressure interference effects of two and three tall buildings,especially the three-building configuration,are investigated through a series of wind tunnel tests on typical tall building models using high frequency force balance technique and wind pressure measurements.Furthermore,the present paper focuses on the effects of parameters,including breadth ratio and height ratio of the buildings and terrain category,on the interference factors and derives relevant regression results for the interference factors.     

Normal and typhoon wind loadings on a large cooling tower: A comparative study

Large cooling towers are sensitive to wind effects with their increasing heights and flexibilities. Unlike traditional approaches, which employed Code-defined normal winds to check the loading characteristics, this paper developed a framework for checking the typhoon-induced wind loading on a large cooling tower using Monte Carlo simulations and multi-fan wind tunnel tests. Some distinct characteristics of typhoon winds were compared with those of Code-defined normal winds. Furthermore, wind characteristics of incoming normal and typhoon winds in terms of vertical profile of mean wind speed, turbulence intensity, turbulence integral length scale and power spectrum density of fluctuating winds were well reproduced by a feedback control process of a multi-fan actively controlled wind tunnel. The surface wind pressure distributions of a large cooling tower under these conditions were then investigated by testing a 1:600 reduced scale model. Mean and fluctuating external wind pressures along the circumferential direction under various incoming winds were discussed and quantitatively formulated with eight-term trigonometric equations. Moreover, the cross correlations of wind pressures in the circumferential and meridian directions and correlations with structure base forces, i.e. integral drag and lift forces, were investigated. Non-Gaussian characteristics in terms of skewness and kurtosis of fluctuating wind pressures were also analyzed under two wind climates. Peak factors for modeling extreme wind pressures were examined and compared with those of various models. Finally, the extreme wind loads on a large cooling tower obtained from different wind pressure combinations were compared with peak-factor-theory-based results to identify an appropriate combination for structural design.     

The influence of free-stream disturbances on low Reynolds number airfoil experiments

The results of an investigation of the influence of free stream disturbances on the lift and drag performance of the Lissaman 7769 airfoil are presented. The wind tunnel disturbance environment is described using hot-wire anemometer and sound pressure level measurements. The disturbance level is increased by the addition of a ‘turbulence screen’ upstream of the test section and/or the addition of a flow restrictor downstream of the test section. For the Lissaman airfoil it was found that the problems associated with obtaining accurate wind tunnel data at low chord Reynolds numbers (i.e., below 200,000) are compounded by the extreme sensitivity of the boundary layers to the free stream disturbance environment. The effect of free stream disturbances varies with magnitude, frequency content, and source of the disturbance.     

Wind tunnel simulation of wind loading on a solid structure of revolution

The wind tunnel simulations of wind loading on a solid structure of revolution with one smooth and five rough surfaces were conducted using wind tunnel tests. Timemean and fluctuating pressure distributions on the surface were obtained, and the relationships between the roughness Reynolds number and pressure distributions were analyzed and discussed. The results show that increasing the surface roughness can significantly affect the pressure distribution, and the roughness Reynolds numbers play an important role in the change of flow patterns. The three flow patterns of subcritical, critical and supercritical flows can be classified based on the changing patterns of both the mean and the fluctuating pressure distributions. The present study suggests that the wind tunnel results obtained in the supercritical pattern reflect more closely those of full-scale solid structure of revolution at the designed wind speed.     

On the generation of large-scale homogeneous turbulence

An active turbulence generating grid, based on the rotating-vane design of Makita (1991), was developed for a large wind tunnel. At 2.14 m square, the grid is the largest of this type ever developed. To improve the isotropy of the turbulence generated, the grid was placed in the wind tunnel contraction. Measurements show that the grid produces a closely uniform mean flow and homogeneous isotropic turbulence to within two integral scales from the wall. By systematically varying the flow speed and parameters controlling the random motion of the vanes, grid turbulence with a wide variety of characteristics was produced and the dependence of those characteristics on the operating parameters of the grid revealed. Taylor Reynolds numbers of the grid turbulence varied from 100 to 1,360 and integral scales from 5 to almost 70 cm. The extreme cases represent some of the highest Reynolds number and largest scale homogeneous turbulent flows ever generated in a wind tunnel.     

Determination of correlation functions of turbulent velocity and sound speed fluctuations by means of ultrasonic technique

An experimental study of the propagation of high-frequency acoustic waves through grid-generated turbulence by means of an ultrasound technique is discussed. Experimental data were obtained for ultrasonic wave propagation downstream of heated and non-heated grids in a wind tunnel. A semi-analytical acoustic propagation model that allows the determination of the spatial correlation functions of the flow field is developed based on the classical flowmeter equation and the statistics of the travel time of acoustic waves traveling through the kinematic and thermal turbulence. The basic flowmeter equation is reconsidered in order to take into account sound speed fluctuations and turbulent velocity fluctuations. It allows deriving an integral equation that relates the correlation functions of travel time, sound speed fluctuations and turbulent velocity fluctuations. Experimentally measured travel time statistics of data with and without grid heating are approximated by an exponential function and used to analytically solve the integral equation. The reconstructed correlation functions of the turbulent velocity and sound speed fluctuations are presented. The power spectral density of the turbulent velocity and sound speed fluctuations are calculated.     

Unsteady aerodynamics modeling for flight dynamics application

In view of engineering application, it is practicable to decompose the aerodynamics into three components: the static aerodynamics, the aerodynamic increment due to steady rotations, and the aerodynamic increment due to unsteady separated and vortical flow. The first and the second components can be presented in conventional forms while the third is described using a one-order differential equation and a radial-basis-function (RBF) network. For an aircraft configuration, the mathematical models of 6component aerodynamic coefficients are set up from the wind tunnel test data of pitch, yaw, roll, and coupled yawroll large-amplitude oscillations. The flight dynamics of an aircraft is studied by the bifurcation analysis technique in the case of quasi-steady aerodynamics and unsteady aerodynamics, respectively. The results show that: (1) unsteady aerodynamics has no effect upon the existence of trim points, but affects their stability; (2) unsteady aerodynamics has great effects upon the existence, stability, and amplitudes of periodic solutions; and (3) unsteady aerodynamics changes the stable regions of trim points obviously. Furthermore, the dynamic responses of the aircraft to elevator deflections are inspected It is shown that the unsteady aerodynamics is beneficial to dynamic stability for the present aircraft. Finally, the effects of unsteady aerodynamics on the post-stall maneuverability are analyzed by numerical simulation.     

Application of the PITM Method Using Inlet Synthetic Turbulence Generation for the Simulation of the Turbulent Flow in a Small Axisymmetric Contraction

We investigate the turbulence modeling of second moment closure used both in RANS and PITM methodologies from a fundamental point of view and its capacity to predict the flow in a low turbulence wind tunnel of small axisymmetric contraction designed by Uberoi and Wallis. This flow presents a complex phenomenon in physics of fluid turbulence. The anisotropy ratio of the turbulent stresses τ ₁₁/τ ₂₂ initially close to 1.4 returns to unity through the contraction, but surprisingly, this ratio gradually increases to its pre-contraction value in the uniform section downstream the contraction. This point constitutes the interesting paradox of the Uberoi and Wallis experiment. We perform numerical simulations of the turbulent flow in this wind tunnel using both a Reynolds stress model developed in RANS modeling and a subfilter scale stress model derived from the partially integrated transport modeling method. With the aim of reproducing the experimental grid turbulence resulting from the effects of the square-mesh biplane grid on the uniform wind tunnel stream, we develop a new analytical spectral method of generation of pseudo-random velocity fields in a cubic box. These velocity fields are then introduced in the channel using a matching numerical technique. Both RANS and PITM simulations are performed on several meshes to study the effects of the contraction on the mean velocity and turbulence. As a result, it is found that the RANS computation using the Reynolds stress model fails to reproduce the increase of anisotropy in the centerline of the channel after passing the contraction. In the contrary, the PITM simulation predicts fairly well this turbulent flow according to the experimental data, and especially, the “return to anisotropy” in the straight section of the channel downstream the contraction. This work shows that the PITM method used in conjunction with an analytical synthetic turbulence generation as inflow is well suited for simulating this flow, while allowing a drastic reduction of the computational resources.     

Reynolds number effects on a turbulent boundary layer with separation,reattachment, and recovery

The present paper addresses experimental studies of Reynolds number effects on a turbulent boundary layer with separation, reattachment, and recovery. A momentum thickness Reynolds number varies from 1,100 to 20,100 with a wind tunnel enclosed in a pressure vessel by varying the air density and wind tunnel speed. A custom-built, high-resolution laser Doppler anemometer provides fully resolved turbulence measurements over the full Reynolds number range. The experiments show that the mean flow is at most a very weak function of Reynolds number while turbulence quantities strongly depend on Reynolds number. Roller vortices are generated in the separated shear layer caused by the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability. Empirical Reynolds number scalings for the mean velocity and Reynolds stresses are proposed for the upstream boundary layer, the separated region, and the recovery region. The inflectional instability plays a critical role in the scaling in the separated region. The near-wall flow recovers quickly downstream of reattachment even if the outer layer is far from an equilibrium state. As a result, a stress equilibrium layer where a flat-plate boundary layer scaling is valid develops in the recovery region and grows outward moving downstream.     

Meander of a fin trailing vortex and the origin of its turbulence

The low-frequency meander of a trailing vortex shed from a tapered fin installed on a wind tunnel wall has been studied using stereoscopic particle image velocimetry in the near-wake at Mach 0.8. Distributions of the instantaneous vortex position reveal that the meander amplitude increases with downstream distance and decreases with vortex strength, indicating meander is induced external to the vortex. Trends with downstream distance suggest meander begins on the fin surface, prior to vortex shedding. Mean vortex properties are unaltered when considered in the meandering reference frame, apparently because turbulent fluctuations in the vortex shape and strength dominate positional variations. Conversely, a large peak of artificial turbulent kinetic energy is found centered in the vortex core, which almost entirely disappears when corrected for meander, though some turbulence remains near the core radius. Turbulence originating at the wind tunnel wall was shown to contribute to vortex meander by energizing the incoming boundary layer using low-profile vortex generators and observing a substantial increase in the meander amplitude, while greater turbulent kinetic energy penetrates the vortex core. An explanatory mechanism has been hypothesized, in which the vortex initially forms at the apex of the swept leading edge of the fin where it is exposed to turbulent fluctuations within the wind tunnel wall boundary layer, introducing an instability into the incipient vortex core.     

An experimental study of the effect of free-stream turbulence on a trailing vortex

A study of turbulence evolution and spectra within and just outside the core of a trailing vortex is performed. The vortex is generated by a vortex generator consisting of four blades positioned orthogonally to each other with the same angle of attack and placed in a low-speed wind tunnel. A grid is placed upstream of the vortex generator to produce free-stream turbulence, which wraps around and interacts with the columnar vortex. Instantaneous measurements of the three velocity components are obtained using a miniature four-sensor hot-wire probe. The study focuses on the distribution of turbulence energy and Reynolds stress among the different spectral components of the flow at different positions across the vortex core and different axial positions along the tunnel. The effect of background grid turbulence on the spectral energy distribution of the vortex is examined in comparison to the vortex alone.     

Optical measurement techniques for high Reynolds number train investigations

This article reports on experimental aerodynamic investigations on a generic high-speed train configuration performed within two different wind tunnels. Both wind tunnels are specialized facilities for high Reynolds number investigations and offer low turbulence levels. The wind tunnels are the cryogenic wind tunnel located in Cologne (KKK) and in the high-pressure wind tunnel located in Göttingen (HDG). Both facilities are part of the German–Dutch wind tunnel association (DNW). The adaptation and application of three optical measurement techniques for such high Reynolds number investigations is described in the article. The optical methods are: Particle Image Velocimetry for the measurement of velocity fields, Background Oriented Schlieren technique for density gradient measurements, and a white light Digital Speckle Photography technique for model deformation monitoring.     

二维衰减湍流的速度加速度结构函数

湍流场中二阶速度加速度结构函数 (velocity-acceleration structure function, VASF) 被认为与尺度间能量或者拟涡能的传递相关,其正负表明传递的方向. 三维湍流中,能量从大尺度向 小尺度传递,VASF 为负. 在二维湍流中,能量反向传递到大尺度,拟涡能正向传递到小尺度,因此理论上 VASF 无论在反向能量级串区还是在正向拟 涡能级串区均为正. 然而,相对于三维湍流中 VASF 的充分研究,二维湍流中 VASF 的正负性迄今尚无实验或数值模拟数据验证. 本文通过三维二维湍流中普适的公式推导,指出在空间非均匀湍流场中,VASF 除了尺度间传递,还受到非均匀项的影响. 一种常见的空间非均匀湍流场是在实验研究中常用的风洞或水洞中,湍流发生装置 (如栅格) 后的湍流. 该流场中,湍流强度随下游位置增大而逐渐衰减,这种衰减则带来空间上的非均匀性. 本文在基于竖直流动皂膜的二维衰减湍流场中,利用拉格朗日粒子追踪法测得在拟涡能级串区的 VASF,并分析各部分的影响. 结果表明,虽然尺度间传递项为正值,但由于衰减带来的非均匀项为负值,使得 VASF 的值为负,使之失去了表征拟涡能传递方向的意义. 因此,在类似风洞、水洞、水槽等衰减流场中对 VASF 的讨论不应忽略非均匀项. 最后对与 VASF 密切相关的弥散过程进行分析,发现后期弥散过程变慢是由于负的 VASF 导致.      

VELOCITY-ACCELERATION STRUCTURE FUNCTION IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL DECAYING TURBULENCE$^{\bf 1)}$

湍流场中二阶速度加速度结构函数 (velocity-acceleration structure function, VASF) 被认为与尺度间能量或者拟涡能的传递相关,其正负表明传递的方向. 三维湍流中,能量从大尺度向 小尺度传递,VASF 为负. 在二维湍流中,能量反向传递到大尺度,拟涡能正向传递到小尺度,因此理论上 VASF 无论在反向能量级串区还是在正向拟 涡能级串区均为正. 然而,相对于三维湍流中 VASF 的充分研究,二维湍流中 VASF 的正负性迄今尚无实验或数值模拟数据验证. 本文通过三维二维湍流中普适的公式推导,指出在空间非均匀湍流场中,VASF 除了尺度间传递,还受到非均匀项的影响. 一种常见的空间非均匀湍流场是在实验研究中常用的风洞或水洞中,湍流发生装置 (如栅格) 后的湍流. 该流场中,湍流强度随下游位置增大而逐渐衰减,这种衰减则带来空间上的非均匀性. 本文在基于竖直流动皂膜的二维衰减湍流场中,利用拉格朗日粒子追踪法测得在拟涡能级串区的 VASF,并分析各部分的影响. 结果表明,虽然尺度间传递项为正值,但由于衰减带来的非均匀项为负值,使得 VASF 的值为负,使之失去了表征拟涡能传递方向的意义. 因此,在类似风洞、水洞、水槽等衰减流场中对 VASF 的讨论不应忽略非均匀项. 最后对与 VASF 密切相关的弥散过程进行分析,发现后期弥散过程变慢是由于负的 VASF 导致.     

INTERFERENCE EFFECTS FOR A GROUP OF TWO REINFORCED CONCRETE CHIMNEYS

Based on wind tunnel experiments in a simulated boundary layer flow, interference effects for a group of two 200 m high reinforced concrete chimneys are investigated, in particular the effect of the natural frequencies of the structure on the response. The wind induced forces are measured by a force balance which acts as a mechanical filter. This distortion has to be removed in the frequency domain. For translating the wind tunnel results to full-scale results, the measured signals have to be weighted additionally by the mechanical admittance of the real structure, taking into account the appropriate frequency scale. After correction and weighting in the frequency domain, the signals are re-transferred to the time domain to sample the extremes of the action effects, i.e., the responses, which now include the quasi-static and resonant contribution. To obtain a sufficiently high statistical stability, 60 independent runs are performed for each interference situation. The analysis of the extremes clearly shows that for interference situations the coefficient of variation of the extremes is high. Therefore, an appropriate fractile of the extremes should be used to define the design wind load. This fractile is obtained assuming a Gumbel distribution for the probability distribution of the extreme action effects. Additionally, an appropriate time scale has to be taken into account. The difference between the proposed fractile and the often applied mean value of the extremes is large, with differences up to 20%. Interference leads to a mixed excitation. Besides resonance due to the turbulence of the oncoming flow, considerable resonant excitation may occur due to wake buffeting. While in the first case a lower value of the natural frequency leads to larger action effects, resonance effects due to wake buffeting become worse for a higher value of the natural frequency. Since in the design calculations the natural frequency can be estimated only within a remaining uncertainty a conservative estimate is often used to determine the wind-induced response. For an isolated chimney excited by wind turbulence, the lower limit of the frequency provides a conservative prediction. For wake buffeting, on the other hand, the upper limit may have more serious effects. Therefore, it is recommended to analyse the structural effects for a sufficiently broad bandwidth of natural frequencies.     

The effect of three-dimensionality on the aerodynamic admittance of thin sections in free stream turbulence

The unsteady behaviour of a thin plate section or aerofoil strip in a turbulent wind field is described by a two-wavenumber extension of the well known single wavenumber Sears function. The second (spanwise) wavenumber is introduced to deal with the three dimensional effects of the turbulence. The present work considers the unsteady forces induced on finite span sections and investigates the influence of the ratio of span to chord (aspect-ratio) of the section on these three dimensional effects. The analysis shows that the influence of the spanwise wavenumber becomes negligible for the aerodynamic admittance of buffeting lift forces for large enough aspect-ratios, such as those typical of modern long-span bridges, thus supporting the use of strip-theory in these cases.     

Wind tunnel tests of wings at Reynolds numbers below 70 000

 Rectangular planform wings were tested at Reynolds numbers as low as 20 000 in a low turbulence wind tunnel. The lift and drag measurements on a NACA 0012 profile were compared with those for thin flat and cambered plates. For all Reynolds numbers below 70 000 the best profile was a thin plate with a 5% circular arc camber. At all turbulence levels this profile produced the greatest lift-drag ratio, and had the highest lift coefficient at all angles of attack. The 5% camber and all of the thin plates tested were relatively insensitive to either a variation in the Reynolds number, or an increase in the wind tunnel turbulence level, whereas the NACA 0012 was very seriously affected by either, at Reynolds numbers below 50 000. Received: 27 September 1995/Accepted: 21 March 1997     

大型电厂直冷系统风效应风洞模拟

讨论了电厂空冷凝器风效应风洞模拟准则及其实验和测量手段,提出用回流率的概念作为衡量冷凝器效率的指标．运用该指标对某电厂空冷项目实例的实验结果表明：风速、空冷平台柱高和来流风向角对冷凝器的效率有着重要影响．由此得出在空气冷却电厂的初始设计阶段,结合当地风气象资料的风洞模拟实验是非常必要的．     

较高Re数圆柱尾流的控制

引入一个窄条作为控制件，在Re=3.0×10 3~2.0×10 4范围内对圆柱尾流进行控制实验。窄条长度与柱体长度相同,厚 度为柱体直径的 0.015~0.025倍,宽度为柱体直径的0.18倍. 窄条的两个长边 与柱中心轴平行, 而且三者共面. 控制参数为窄条位置, 可由间距(窄条到柱轴)比λ/(0.5D)和风向角β (窄 条面与来流的夹角)确定. 采用流动显示和热线测量方法,对控制和未控制尾流的流动状态, 平均速度分布和脉动速度情况,以及作用于柱体和控制件的总阻力进行了研究和比较. 研究结果证明, 当窄条位于柱体尾流中一定区域内时, 可有效抑制柱体两侧的旋涡脱落.有效控制后的尾流湍流度也相应减小. 在不同Re数下,找出了有效抑制旋涡脱落的窄条位置区域, 并用动量积分估计了作用于柱体和窄条上的总阻力与光圆柱阻力的比值及其随风向角的变 化. 对λ/(0.5D)=2.9情况,得到了减阻的风向角区域(β=0°~40°与180°附近)以及最大减阻率32%.以上事实表明，在近尾流局部区域施加小的干扰,可改变较高Re数圆柱尾流的整体性质.