Performance investigations of quantum dot infrared photodetectors

Quantum dot infrared photodetectors (QDIPs) have already attracted more and more attention in recent years due to a high photoconductive gain, a low dark current and an increased operating temperature. In the paper, a device model for the QDIP is proposed. It is assumed that the total electron transport and the self-consistent potential distribution under the dark conditions determine the dark current calculation of QDIP devices in this model. The model can be used for calculating the dark current, the photocurrent and the detectivity of QDIP devices, and these calculated results show a good agreement with the published results, which illustrate the validity of the device model.     

Comparison studies of infrared photodetectors with a quantum-dot and a quantum-wire base

This paper mainly presents a theoretical analysis for the characteristics of quantum dot infrared photodetectors (QDIPs) and quantum wire infrared photodetectors (QRIPs). The paper introduces a unique mathematical model of solving Poisson’s equations with the usage of Lambert W functions for infrared detectors’ structures based on quantum effects. Even though QRIPs and QDIPs have been the subject of extensive researches and development during the past decade, it is still essential to implement theoretical models allowing to estimate the ultimate performance of those detectors such as photocurrent and its figure-of-merit detectivity vs. various parameter conditions such as applied voltage, number of quantum wire layers, quantum dot layers, lateral characteristic size, doping density, operation temperature, and structural parameters of the quantum dots (QDs), and quantum wires (QRs). A comparison is made between the computed results of the implemented models and fine agreements are observed. It is concluded from the obtained results that the total detectivity of QDIPs can be significantly lower than that in the QRIPs and main features of the QRIPs such as large gap between the induced photocurrent and dark current of QRIP which allows for overcoming the problems in the QDIPs. This confirms what is evaluated before in the literature. It is evident that by increasing the QD/QR absorption volume in QDIPs/QRIPs as well as by separating the dark current and photocurrents, the specific detectivity can be improved and consequently the devices can operate at higher temperatures. It is an interesting result and it may be benefit to the development of QDIP and QRIP for infrared sensing applications.     

Performance improvement of quantum dot infrared photodetectors through modeling

This paper presents a method to evaluate and improve the performance of quantum dot infrared photodetectors (QDIPs). We proposed a device model for QDIPs. The developed model accounts for the self-consistent potential distribution, features of the electron capture and transport in realistic QDIPs in dark and illumination conditions. This model taking the effect of donor charges on the spatial distribution of the electric potential in the QDIP active region. The model is used for the calculation of the dark current, photocurrent and detectivity as a function of the structural parameters such as applied voltage, doping QD density, QD layers, and temperature. It explains strong sensitivity of dark current to the density of QDs and the doping level of the active region. In order to confirm our models and their validity on the practical applications, a comparison between the results obtained by proposed models and that experimentally published are conducted and full agreement is observed. Results show the effectiveness of methodology introduced.     

Improvement of QDIP performance due to quantum dots with built-in charge

The charging of quantum dots provides two strong effects which improve Quantum Dot Infrared Photodetector (QDIP) performance. First, electrons placed in the quantum dots enhance IR-induced transitions and increase electron coupling to IR radiation. Second, the built-in-dot charge creates potential barriers around dots and these barriers strongly suppress the photoelectron capture and exponentially increase the photoelectron lifetime. Both effects enhance the IR photoresponse. Long photoelectron lifetime decreases the generation–recombination noise and increases the device sensitivity. To investigate the potential profiles around charged dots, we used the nextnano3 software which allows for simulation of multilayer structures combined with realistic geometries in one, two, and three spatial dimensions. In weak electric fields the photoelectron kinetics and transport in the potential created by charged dots have been studied analytically. In strong fields the results were based on Monte-Carlo modeling. The effects of dot charging have been investigated in QD structures which were fabricated using molecular beam epitaxy. InAs quantum dots were grown on AlGaAs surfaces by deposition of approximately 2.1 monolayers of InAs. In the obtained structures the dot charging is realized via intra-dot and inter-dot doping. The increase in photoresponse due to dot charging is in good agreement with the model which takes into account anisotropy of potential barriers around QDs in QD layers.     

外加条件及两种电子传输对量子点红外探测器噪声的影响

基于外加电场对电子漂移速度的影响,考虑激发能对微米尺度和纳米尺度电子传输的依赖,通过计算仿真研究了外加条件及两种电子传输对量子点红外探测器噪声的影响.结果表明:在2545kV/cm外加电场下,噪声模型和实验数据吻合;噪声随着外加电场和温度的增加而增加,当温度小于80K时噪声增加迅速,而当温度大于80K时噪声增加缓慢,并且温度越低噪声随外加电场变化越明显;噪声不随微米尺度电子传输激发能的变化而变化,随着纳米尺度电子传输激发能的增加而减小,随着纳米尺度电子传输激发能变化速度的增加而增加.该研究可为量子点红外探测器的优化设计和性能提高提供理论参考.     

Demonstration of 640 × 512 pixels long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) quantum dot infrared photodetector (QDIP) imaging focal plane array

We have exploited the artificial atom-like properties of epitaxially grown self-assembled quantum dots (QDs) for the development of high operating temperature long wavelength infrared (LWIR) focal plane arrays (FPAs). QD infrared photodetectors (QDIPs) are expected to outperform quantum well infrared detectors (QWIPs) and are expected to offer significant advantages over II–VI material based FPAs. We have used molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) technology to grow multi-layer LWIR dot-in-a-well (DWELL) structures based on the InAs/InGaAs/GaAs material system. This hybrid quantum dot/quantum well device offers additional control in wavelength tuning via control of dot-size and/or quantum well sizes. DWELL QDIPs were also experimentally shown to absorb both 45° and normally incident light. Thus we have employed a reflection grating structure to further enhance the quantum efficiency. The most recent devices exhibit peak responsivity out to 8.1 μm. Peak detectivity of the 8.1 μm devices has reached 1 × 10¹⁰ Jones at 77 K. Furthermore, we have fabricated the first long-wavelength 640 × 512 pixels QDIP imaging FPA. This QDIP FPA has produced excellent infrared imagery with noise equivalent temperature difference of 40 mK at 60 K operating temperature.     

InAs/GaAs quantum dot infrared photodetectors with different growth temperatures

InAs/GaAs quantum dot infrared photodetectors were fabricated with quantum dots grown at three different temperatures. Large detection wavelength shift (5–14.5 μm) was demonstrated by changing 40 degrees of the epitaxy temperature. The smaller quantum dots grown at lower temperature generate 14.5 μm responses. The detectivity of the normal incident 15 μm QDIP at 77 K is 3 × 10⁸ cm Hz^1/2/W. A three-color detector was also demonstrated with quantum dots grown at medium temperature. The three-color detection comes from two groups of different sizes of dots within one QD layer. This new type of multicolor detector shows unique temperature tuning behavior that was never reported before.     

Physical model for the dark current of quantum dot infrared photodetectors

Dark current has attracted much attention in recent years due to its great influence on the performance of the QDIP. In this paper, a model for the dark current is proposed with the consideration of the influence of the nanoscale electron transport on the dark current based on the dark current model proposed by H.C. Liu. The model permits calculating the dark current as a function of the electric field, and it can further estimate the photocurrent, the current responsivity and the detectivity via the current equilibrium equation under the dark condition. The results obtained show a good agreement with the experimental results and manifest the validity of the proposed model.     

量子点中强耦合极化子的性质

采用Pekar类型的变分方法研究了抛物量子点中强耦合极化子的基态和激发态的性质。计算了基态和激发态极化子的结合能、光学声子平均数和极化子的共振频率。讨论了这些量对有效限制强度和电子 体纵光学声子耦合强度的依赖关系。结果表明:抛物量子点中极化子的共振频率、基态和激发态极化子的结合能以及光学声子平均数都随量子点的有效束缚强度的增大而减小。光学声子平均数随电子 体纵光学声子耦合强度的增加而增大。     

Antiresonance of electron tunneling through a quantum dot array

Electronic transport through a one-dimensional quantum dot array is theoretically studied. In such a system both electron reservoirs of continuum states couple with the individual component quantum dots of the array arbitrarily. When there are some dangling quantum dots in the array outside the dot(s) contacting the leads, the electron tunneling through the quantum dot array is wholly forbidden if the electron energy is just equal to the molecular energy levels of the dangling quantum dots, which is called as antiresonance of electron tunneling. Accordingly, when the chemical potential of the reservoir electrons is aligned with the electron levels of all quantum dots, the linear conductance at zero temperature vanishes if there are odd number dangling quantum dots; Otherwise, it is equal to 2e²/h due to resonant tunneling if the total number of quantum dots in the array is odd. This odd–even parity is independent of the interdot and the lead–dot coupling strength.     

太赫兹量子级联激光器中有源区上激发态电子向高能级泄漏的研究

利用热力学统计理论和激光器输出特性理论,建立了太赫兹量子级联激光器(THz QCL)有源区中上激发态电子往更高能级电子态泄漏的计算模型,以输出功率度量电子泄漏程度研究分析了晶格温度和量子阱势垒高度对电子泄漏的影响.数值仿真结果表明,晶格温度上升会加剧电子泄漏,并且电子从上激发态泄漏到束缚态的数量大于泄漏到阱外连续态,同时温度的上升也会降低激光输出功率.增加量子阱势垒高度能抑制电子泄漏,并且有源区量子阱结构中存在一个最优量子阱势垒高度. THz QCL经过最优量子阱势垒高度优化后,工作温度得到提升,其输出功率相比于以往的结果也有所提高.研究结果对优化THz QCL有源区结构、抑制电子泄漏和改善激光器输出特性有指导作用.     

Comparative study between different quantum infrared photodetectors

This paper presents a theoretical analysis for the dark current characteristics of different quantum infrared photodetectors. These quantum photodetectors are quantum dot infrared photodetectors (QDIP), quantum wire infrared photodetectors (QRIP), and quantum well infrared photodetectors (QWIP). Mathematical models describing these devices are introduced. The developed models accounts for the self-consistent potential distribution. These models are taking the effect of donor charges on the spatial distribution of the electric potential in the active region. The developed model is used to investigate the behavior of dark current with different values of performance parameters such as applied voltage, number of quantum wire (QR) layers, QD layers, lateral characteristic size, doping quantum wire density and temperature. It explains strong sensitivity of dark current to the density of QDs/QRs and the doping level of the active region. In order to confirm our models and their validity on the practical applications, a comparison between the results obtained by proposed models and that experimentally published are conducted and full agreement is observed. Several performance parameters are tuned to enhance the performance of these quantum photodetectors through the presented modeling. The resultant performance characteristics and comparison among them are presented in this work. From the obtained results we notice that the total dark current in the QRIPs can be significantly lower than that in the QWIPs. Moreover, main features of the QRIPs such as the large gap between the induced photocurrent and dark current open the way for overcoming the problems of quantum dot infrared photodetectors.     

Ferromagnetism mediated by few electrons in a semimagnetic quantum dot

A (II,Mn)VI diluted magnetic semiconductor quantum dot with an integer number of electrons controlled with a gate voltage is considered. We show that a single electron is able to induce a collective spontaneous magnetization of the Mn spins, overcoming the short range antiferromagnetic interactions, at a temperature order of 1 K, 2 orders of magnitude above the ordering temperature in bulk. The magnetic behavior of the dot depends dramatically on the parity of the number of electrons in the dot.     

Ultrafast carrier dynamics of resonantly excited InAs/GaAs self-assembled quantum dots

We study theoretically the time development of electronic relaxation in quantum dots. We consider the process of relaxation of the state with an electron prepared at the beginning of relaxation in the electronic ground state. We obtain a fast (in picoseconds) increase of electronic population in the excited state. Also, we consider the process of relaxation of an electron from an excited state in the dot. Here we obtain an incomplete depopulation of the electron from the excited state. We compare these results to experiments in which a fast decrease of luminescence is reported during the first period of relaxation after resonant excitation of the ground state. We estimate numerically the role of electron–LO–phonon (Fröhlich's coupling) mechanism in these processes. We show that this effect may be attributed to the influence of multiple scattering of quantum dot electrons on LO phonons. A single-electron two-energy-level quantum dot model is used to demonstrate this effect in an isolated semiconductor quantum dot.     

Blockade of tunneling in a suspended single-electron transistor

The tunneling of electrons that is limited by the Coulomb blockade effect in a single-electron transistor with a quantum dot based on a narrow GaAs/AlGaAs quantum wire suspended over a substrate is investigated. By means of a direct comparison experiment, the tunneling features associated with the separation of the quantum dot from the substrate are revealed. In addition to an increase in the charge energy (Coulomb gap), which reaches 170 K in temperature units, the dependence of this energy on the number of electrons in the quantum dot, which varies from zero to four, is observed. This dependence is explained by a change in the effective size of the dot due to the effect of the depleting gate voltage. Moreover, the additional blockade of tunneling that is different from the Coulomb blockade and is specific for suspended structures is observed. It is shown that this blockade is not associated with the dynamical effect of exciting local phonon modes and can be attributed to the change in the static elastic strains in the quantum wire that accompany the tunneling of an electron to/from the quantum dot.     

Spin-entangled currents created by a triple quantum dot

We propose a simple setup of three coupled quantum dots in the Coulomb blockade regime as a source for spatially separated currents of spin-entangled electrons. The entanglement originates from the singlet ground state of a quantum dot with an even number of electrons. To preserve the entanglement of the electron pair during its extraction to the drain leads, the electrons are transported through secondary dots. This prevents one-electron transport by energy mismatch, while joint transport is resonantly enhanced by conservation of the total two-electron energy.     

硅纳米结构晶体管中与杂质量子点相关的量子输运

在小于10 nm的沟道空间中,杂质数目和杂质波动范围变得十分有限,这对器件性能有很大的影响.局域纳米空间中的电离杂质还能够展现出量子点特性,为电荷输运提供两个分立的杂质能级.利用杂质原子作为量子输运构件的硅纳米结构晶体管有望成为未来量子计算电路的基本组成器件.本文结合安德森定域化理论和Hubbard带模型对单个、分立和耦合杂质原子系统中的量子输运特性进行了综述,系统介绍了提升杂质原子晶体管工作温度的方法.     

抛物量子点中强耦合束缚极化子的光学声子平均数

采用线性组合算符和幺正变换方法研究了在库仑场束缚下抛物量子点中强耦合束缚极化子的振动频率和光学声子平均数,并对其进行了数值计算。结果表明:强耦合束缚极化子的振动频率和光学声子平均数随量子点的有效受限长度的增加而减小,随电子-LO声子耦合强度的增强而增加,束缚极化子的振动频率随库仑势的增加而减小。     

一种新型的高频半导体量子点单电子泵

除了直流负电压外,还在浅法刻蚀出的GaAs/AlGaAs量子线上的两个金属指形门上分别叠加两个相位相差π的正弦信号,从而对形成量子点的两个势垒作不等幅调制.在无源漏偏压的情况下,通过周期形成的量子点实现了单电子的搬运.由于新的半导体量子点单电子泵不是依赖库仑阻塞效应通过隧穿进行单电子输运,因此,该器件就不会受到固定隧穿时间引起的低工作频率限制.在1.7K温度下,频率达到3GHz仍然可以观测到量子化电流平台,对应的电流值达到0.5nA量级.这种新器件提供了实现高速度、高精度搬运单电子的另一种可能途径. 关键词： 单电子输运 单电子旋转门 单电子泵 量子化电流平台     

Full counting statistics of transport electrons through a two-level quantum dot with spin–orbit coupling

We study the full counting statistics of transport electrons through a semiconductor two-level quantum dot with Rashba spin–orbit (SO) coupling, which acts as a nonabelian gauge field and thus induces the electron transition between two levels along with the spin flip. By means of the quantum master equation approach, shot noise and skewness are obtained at finite temperature with two-body Coulomb interaction. We particularly demonstrate the crucial effect of SO coupling on the super-Poissonian fluctuation of transport electrons, in terms of which the SO coupling can be probed by the zero-frequency cumulants. While the charge currents are not sensitive to the SO coupling.