Functionalized carbon electrodes for pH determination

The derivatization of carbon materials has allowed electrochemists to develop electrodes for pH measurements that offer distinct advantages compared to other common methods for determining pH in solutions. In this report, an overview on recent work on the different derivatization strategies leading to potentiometric, amperometric, or voltammetric pH sensors is given. The topic is subdivided into five main categories: (1) chemical modification, (2) covalent bonding, (3) physical adsorption, (4) film formation, and (5) composite electrodes.