Development and characterisation of disposable gold electrodes, and their use for lead(II) analysis

There is an increasing need to assess the harmful effects of heavy-metal-ion pollution on the environment. The ability to detect and measure toxic contaminants on site using simple, cost effective, and field-portable sensors is an important aspect of environmental protection and facilitating rapid decision making. A screen-printed gold sensor in a three-electrode configuration has been developed for analysis of lead(II) by square-wave stripping voltammetry (SWSV). The working electrode was fabricated with gold ink deposited by use of thick-film technology. Conditions affecting the lead stripping response were characterised and optimized. Experimental data indicated that chloride ions are important in lead deposition and subsequent analysis with this type of sensor. A linear concentration range of 10–50 μg L⁻¹ and 25–300 μg L⁻¹ with detection limits of 2 μg L⁻¹ and 5.8 μg L⁻¹ were obtained for lead(II) for measurement times of four and two minutes, respectively. The electrodes can be reused up to 20 times after cleaning with 0.5 mol L⁻¹ sulfuric acid. Interference of other metals with the response to lead were also examined to optimize the sensor response for analysis of environmental samples. The analytical utility of the sensor was demonstrated by applying the system to a variety of wastewater and soil sample extracts from polluted sites. The results are sufficient evidence of the feasibility of using these screen-printed gold electrodes for the determination of lead(II) in wastewater and soil extracts. For comparison purposes a mercury-film electrode and ICP–MS were used for validation.