Multilayered artifacts in the pre-Columbian metallurgy from the North of Peru

Three types of alloys were recognized when analyzing pre-Columbian artifacts from the North of Peru: gold, silver, and copper alloys; gilded copper and silver; silvered copper; tumbaga, i.e., copper or silver enriched on gold at the surface by depletion gilding. In this paper, a method is described to differentiate gold alloys from gilded copper and from copper–gold tumbaga, and silver alloys from silvered copper and copper–silver tumbaga. This method is based on the use of energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence, i.e., on a sophisticated analysis of XRF-spectra carrying out an accurate determination of Cu(K _α /K _β ), Ag(K _α /K _β ), Au(L _α /L _β ), and Au-L _α /Cu-K _α or Ag-K _α /Cu-K _α ratios. That implies a dedicated software for the quantitative determination of the area of X-ray peaks. This method was first checked by a relevant number of standard samples and then it was applied to pre-Columbian alloys from the North of Peru.