Umbrella Sampling Simulations of Carbon Nanoparticles Crossing Immiscible Solvents

We use molecular dynamics to compute the free energy of carbon nanoparticles crossing a hydrophobic–hydrophilic interface. The simulations are performed on a biphasic system consisting of immiscible solvents (i.e., cyclohexane and water). We solvate a carbon nanoparticle into the cyclohexane layer and use a pull force to drive the nanoparticle into water, passing over the interface. Next, we accumulate a series of umbrella sampling simulations along the path of the nanoparticle and compute the solvation free energy with respect to the two solvents. We apply the method on three carbon nanoparticles (i.e., a carbon nanocone, a nanotube, and a graphene nanosheet). In addition, we record the water-accessible surface area of the nanoparticles during the umbrella simulations. Although we detect complete wetting of the external surface of the nanoparticles, the internal surface of the nanotube becomes partially wet, whereas that of the nanocone remains dry. This is due to the nanoconfinement of the particular nanoparticles, which shields the hydrophobic interactions encountered inside the pores. We show that cyclohexane molecules remain attached on the concave surface of the nanotube or the nanocone without being disturbed by the water molecules entering the cavity.