Development and critical comparison of greener flow procedures for nitrite determination in natural waters

Two greener procedures for flow-injection spectrophotometric determination of nitrite in natural waters were developed and critically compared. Replacement of toxic reagents, waste minimization and treatment were exploited to attend the standards of clean chemistry. The flow system was designed with solenoid micro-pumps in order to minimize reagent consumption and waste generation. The first procedure is based on the Griess diazo-coupling reaction with sulfanilamide and N-(1-naphthyl)ethylenediamine (NED) yielding an azo dye, followed by photodegradation of the low amount of waste generated based on the photo-Fenton reaction. The second procedure is based on the formation of iodine from nitrite and iodide in acid medium in order to avoid the use of toxic reagents. For Griess method, linear response was achieved up to 1.0 mg L^− 1, described by the equation A = − 0.007 + 0.460C (mg L^− 1), r = 0.999. The detection limit was estimated as 8 μg L^− 1 at the 99.7% confidence level and the coefficient of variation was 0.8% (n = 20). The sampling rate was estimated as 108 determinations per hour. The consumption of the most toxic reagent (NED) is reduced 55-fold and 20-fold in comparison to batch method and flow injection with continuous reagent addition, respectively. A colorless residue was obtained by in-line photodegradation with reduction of 87% of the total organic carbon content. The results obtained for natural water samples were in agreement with those achieved by the reference method at the 95% confidence level. For the nitrite–iodide method, linear response was observed up to 2.0 mg L^− 1, described by the equation A = − 0.024 + 0.148C (mg L^− 1), r = 0.999. The detection limit was estimated as 25 μg L^− 1 at the 99.7% confidence level and the coefficient of variation was 0.6% (n = 20). The sampling rate was estimated as 44 determinations per hour. Despite avoiding the use of toxic reagents, the nitrite–iodide method presented worst performance in terms of selectivity and sensitivity.     

Reliable identification and quantification of trichothecenes and other mycotoxins by electron impact and chemical ionization-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, using an ion-trap system in the multiple mass spectrometry mode. Candidate reference method for complex matrices

Highly toxic mycotoxins like the trichothecenes can be found as contaminants from the metabolism of fungi in food and food preparations. They can be identified and quantified with great accuracy by GC/MS-measurements. Reliable analytical methods are urgently needed because such mycotoxins are not only toxic substances occurring in nature but also are in the list of biological weapons (e.g. T2-toxin, HT-2-toxin) and have some potential for terroristic attacks. By using GC/MS in the EI- and NCI- or PCI-mode and MS(n)-measurements with a 30 m Rtx 5MS fused-silica capillary column it is possible to identify and quantify all relevant mycotoxins either as underivatized substances or as their TMS-derivatives in extracts from food, food preparations or beverages with very complex matrix-derived background. This method can also be used to determine free ricinine as a biological marker for ricine in terroristic attacks. So laborious and time-consuming steps of sample-preparation can often be diminished. The LOD is in the range of 10-50 pg and the LOQ with linear calibration curves is in the range of 50-5000 pg. The high specificity of these methods helps not only to detect the existence of intentional terroristic or natural food contamination but also to avoid faulty alarm with unnecessary panic in the public. Furthermore, these methods have a high potential in ameliorating the safety of basic food and food products.     

Importance of quantitative thermogravimetry on initial cement mass basis to evaluate the hydration of cement pastes and mortars

Thermogravimetric analysis (TG) curves of cement pastes and mortars are obtained by default on their respective initial sample mass basis. This fact does not allow a direct comparison of TG data of percentual mass losses due to the dehydration of a same hydrated component of differently aged pastes or mortars of same cement because the initial masses of the differently aged sample usually have different initial compositions. To solve this problem, one can transform the original thermal analysis curves from the initial sample mass basis to the initial cement mass basis, to have the same composition basis for any hydration time. This paper presents in detail how this can be done graphically and analytically and applies the method to study the evolution of cement hydration during the first 28 days of pastes and mortars prepared from the same type II cement. It also shows how to compare quantitatively the main cement hydrated phases formed during solidification and setting processes of pastes and mortars with different initial compositions as a function of hydration time.     

Schnelle Isolierung der endokrinen Tumorindicatoren Homovanillins?ure, Vanillinmandels?ure und Hydroxyindolessigs?ure aus Harn mit Hilfe von Extrelut zur quantitativen Bestimmung durch Gas-Chromatographie der Trimethylsilylderivate

Zusammenfassung Wertvolle Hilfen bei der Diagnose des Neuroblastoms, des Phäochromocytoms oder des Carcinoid-Syndroms sind folgende saure Metaboliten der biogenen Amine: Homovanillinsäure, Vanillinmandelsäure und 5-Hydroxyindolessigsäure. Es wird eine Methode beschrieben, die es gestattet, unter Verwendung von Extrelut diese Verbindungen aus 2 ml eines angesäuerten (pH 1–2), NaCl-gesättigten Harns zu isolieren. Dies geschieht durch fraktionierte Extraktion der Harnproben mit CHCl₃ und dem Lösungsmittelgemisch CHCl₃/Ethylacetat (50/50, v/v). Die CHCl₃-Fraktion enthält Homovanillinsäure, Hippursäure, 3-Indolylessigsäure sowie die Hauptmenge der m- und p-Hydroxyphenylessigsäure. Die CHCl₃/Ethylacetat-Fraktion enthält im wesentlichen Vanillinmandelsäure, p-Hydroxyphenylmilchsäure, m-Hydroxyphenylhy-dracrylsäure und 5-Hydroxyindolessigsäure. Die gewonnenen Extrakte können nach Abdampfen der Elutionsmittel ohne Trocknung mit MSTFA derivatisiert werden. Die Gas-Chromatographie bzw. Gas-Chromatographie/Massenspektrometrie der so erhaltenen TMS-Derivate kann für die Routinediagnostik mit 3% OV 17 oder 10% UCW 982 auf GasChrom Q (100–120 mesh) unter Verwendung von Stahlsäulen (Länge 6 ft, Ø 1/8) durchgeführt werden. Bei speziellen analytischen Fragestellungen im Subnanogramm-Bereich können Glascapillarsäulen vorteilhaft sein. Es werden Beispiele für normale und pathologische Harnproben gezeigt.

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Rapid isolation of the endocrine urinary tumor-markers homovanillic acid, vanillylmandelic acid and hydroxyindoleacetic acid by means of extrelut followed by GLC of the TMS-derivatives

Summary Essential aids in the diagnosis of neuroblastoma, pheocromocytoma or the carcinoid syndrome are the acid metabolites of biogenic amines HVA, VMA and 5-HIAA. A method is described using 1 g of Extrelut to isolate these compounds from 2 ml of acidified, NaCl-saturated urine (pH 1–2) by means of fractionated extraction with CHCl₃ first, followed by CHCl₃/ethylacetate (50/50, v/v). This technique yields two extracts from one urine sample. The first one contains HVA, hippuric acid, 3-indolylacetic acid and most of m- and p-hydroxyphenylacetic acid, the second one contains mainly VMA, p-hydroxyphenylacetic acid, m-hydroxyphenylhydracrylic acid and 5-HIAA. The extracts are ready for derivatization with MSTFA yielding the TMS-derivatives after evaporation of the solvents without the use of drying agents. GLC or GLC-MS of the TMS-derivatives is performed on 3% OV 17 or 10% UCW 982 on Gas Chrom Q 100–120 mesh, using stainless steel columns of 6 ft length and 1/8 Ø for routine job or glass capillary columns for the detection of minute amounts. Examples for normal and pathological urine samples are shown.

Der Autor dankt Frau I. Menne-Bautsch für die sorgfältige und umsichtige Durchführung vieler Analysen und Herrn Dr. R. Pesch von der Varian MAT GmbH für die Unterstützung bei den massenspektrometrischen Messungen.     

An environmentally friendly flow system for high-sensitivity spectrophotometric determination of free chlorine in natural waters

A green and highly sensitive analytical procedure was developed for the determination of free chlorine in natural waters, based on the reaction with N,N-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine (DPD). The flow system was designed with solenoid micro-pumps in order to improve mixing conditions by pulsed flows and to minimize reagent consumption as well as waste generation. A 100-cm optical path flow cell based on a liquid core waveguide was employed to increase sensitivity. A linear response was observed within the range 10.0 to 100.0 µg L^− 1, with the detection limit, coefficient of variation and sampling rate estimated as 6.8 µg L^− 1 (99.7% confidence level), 0.9% (n = 20) and 60 determinations per hour, respectively. The consumption of the most toxic reagent (DPD) was reduced 20,000-fold and 30-fold in comparison to the batch method and flow injection with continuous reagent addition, respectively. The results for natural and tap water samples agreed with those obtained by the reference batch spectrophotometric procedure at the 95% confidence level.     

Versatile microanalytical system with porous polypropylene capillary membrane for calibration gas generation and trace gaseous pollutants sampling applied to the analysis of formaldehyde, formic acid, acetic acid and ammonia in outdoor air

The analytical determination of atmospheric pollutants still presents challenges due to the low-level concentrations (frequently in the μg m⁻³ range) and their variations with sampling site and time. In this work, a capillary membrane diffusion scrubber (CMDS) was scaled down to match with capillary electrophoresis (CE), a quick separation technique that requires nothing more than some nanoliters of sample and, when combined with capacitively coupled contactless conductometric detection (C⁴D), is particularly favorable for ionic species that do not absorb in the UV-vis region, like the target analytes formaldehyde, formic acid, acetic acid and ammonium. The CMDS was coaxially assembled inside a PTFE tube and fed with acceptor phase (deionized water for species with a high Henry's constant such as formaldehyde and carboxylic acids, or acidic solution for ammonia sampling with equilibrium displacement to the non-volatile ammonium ion) at a low flow rate (8.3 nL s⁻¹), while the sample was aspirated through the annular gap of the concentric tubes at 2.5 mL s⁻¹. A second unit, in all similar to the CMDS, was operated as a capillary membrane diffusion emitter (CMDE), generating a gas flow with know concentrations of ammonia for the evaluation of the CMDS. The fluids of the system were driven with inexpensive aquarium air pumps, and the collected samples were stored in vials cooled by a Peltier element. Complete protocols were developed for the analysis, in air, of NH₃, CH₃COOH, HCOOH and, with a derivatization setup, CH₂O, by associating the CMDS collection with the determination by CE-C⁴D. The ammonia concentrations obtained by electrophoresis were checked against the reference spectrophotometric method based on Berthelot's reaction. Sensitivity enhancements of this reference method were achieved by using a modified Berthelot reaction, solenoid micro-pumps for liquid propulsion and a long optical path cell based on a liquid core waveguide (LCW). All techniques and methods of this work are in line with the green analytical chemistry trends.     

A green analytical procedure for flow-injection determination of nitrate in natural waters

Nitrate determination in waters is generally carried out with cadmium filings and carcinogenic reagents or by reaction with phenolic compounds in highly concentrated sulfuric acid medium. In this work, it was developed a green analytical procedure for nitrate determination in natural waters based on direct spectrophotometric measurements in ultraviolet, using a flow-injection system with an anion-exchange column for separation of nitrate from interfering species. The proposed method employs only one reagent (HClO₄) in a minimum amount (equivalent to 18 μL concentrated acid per determination), and allowed nitrate determination within 0.50-25.0 mg L⁻¹, without interference of up to 200.0 mg L⁻¹ humic acid; 1.0 mg L⁻¹ NO₂⁻; 200.0 mg L⁻¹ PO₄³⁻; 75.0 mg L⁻¹ Cl⁻; 50.0 mg L⁻¹ SO₄²⁻ and 15.0 mg L⁻¹ Fe³⁺. The detection limit (99.7% confidence level) and the coefficient of variation (n = 20) were estimated as 0.1 mg L⁻¹ and 0.7%, respectively. The results obtained for natural water samples were in agreement with those achieved by the reference method based on nitrate reduction with copperized cadmium at the 95% confidence level.