Direct FEM Simulation and Replacement Crack Approach for Mixed Mode Crack Growth in a Unit Cell

A whole class of continuum damage models uses microcracks as the main source of reduction of stiffness. For the growth of these cracks mostly only mode I is considered. We want to present a method to describe mixed mode crack growth inside a unit cell with a crack, without the need of a direct FEM simulation of crack growth per integration point. We replace the infinitesimal grown and kinked crack with the help of a replacement crack model. This replacement method is mainly based on the equivalence of the dissipation of the original kinking and the replacement crack. The resulting evolution of the stiffness of the unit cell is compared to a direct FEM simulation of mixed mode crack growth. The crack growth criterion used is the principle of maximum energy release rate, which has shown to be a direct consequence of a variational principle of a body with a crack [1]. (© 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

On the elastic symmetries of growing mixed-mode cracks

Many continuum damage mechanics models for quasi-brittle materials are based on the reduction of stiffness due to elliptical crack or penny-shaped microcracks in the material. Because of this a numerical study of growing elliptical cracks in a unit cube is undertaken with the help of an FEM simulation.The propagation of the crack is governed by the principle of maximum driving force [1]. For each propagation step the tensor of elasticity is calculated and its symmetries are analyzed. It will be shown that the elastic symmetry in each step is close to orthotropy and can be approximated by an elliptical crack. (© 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Identification of the material symmetries with anisotropic damage evolution due to a growing mixed-mode crack

A numerical study of a growing mixed-mode internal crack in a unit cell was undertaken with the help of a finite element simulation. The model enables us to measure the components of the elastic compliance tensor modified by damage as the crack grows, showing the evolution of the anisotropic damage and the evolution of the type of material symmetries. The evolution of the elasticity tensor shows that the damage associated with a growing elliptical crack changes the virgin isotropic properties into orthotropic ones and by crack growth the axes of orthotropic symmetry, initially aligned with the local coordinates of the crack, rotate towards the principle loading axes. Crack propagation is simulated using the stepwise method, which consists of the succession of straight segments and crack growth is governed by the principle of maximum driving force which is a direct consequence of the variational principle of a cracked body in equilibrium and considers the effect of all three stress intensity factors. Without any ad hoc assumption, the crack growth rate is calculated using its thermodynamic duality with the local maximum driving force. (© 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Evolution of Elastic T-stresses of Growing Mixed-Mode Cracks

Finite element simulations of growing mixed-mode central line-cracks (2-D case) and internal penny-shaped cracks (3-D case) have been performed to address the evolution of the elastic T-stresses acting at the crack-tip (the non-singular stress terms in the stress expansion formula at the crack-front). (© 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

On a numerical scheme for curved crack propagation based on configurational forces and maximum dissipation

A numerical scheme is presented to predict crack trajectories in two dimensional components. First a relation between the curvature in mixed–mode crack propagation and the corresponding configurational forces is derived, based on the principle of maximum dissipation. With the help of this, a numerical scheme is presented which is based on a predictor–corrector method using the configurational forces acting on the crack together with their derivatives along real and test paths. With the help of this scheme it is possible to take bigger than usual propagation steps, represented by splines. Essential for this approach is the correct numerical determination of the configurational forces acting on the crack tip. The methods used by other authors are shortly reviewed and an approach valid for arbitrary non–homogenous and non–linear materials with mixed–mode cracks is presented. Numerical examples show, that the method is a able to predict the crack paths in components with holes, stiffeners etc. with good accuracy. (© 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Improving the Performance of Nafion®-Based Fuel Cell Membranes by Introducing Histidine Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes

A new polymer nanocomposite membrane based on Nafion and functionalized carbon nanotubes (CNTs) was developed for proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) applications. Histidine, an imidazole-based amino acid, was used for modifying the surface of CNTs. The modification of CNTs was characterized by means of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and their Zeta potential. The imidazole groups, due to forming and breaking of hydrogen bonding, can facilitate proton transport across the polymer matrix by the Grotthuss mechanism. The final structure of the Nafion/CNT nanocomposites was investigated by small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The results confirm that the transport properties of the fabricated new membranes were significantly improved in comparison with unmodified and conventional Nafion® membranes. The power density of the imidazole-CNT (Im-CNT) Nafion® composite membranes was about three times more than Nafion® membranes. Also, the experimental results showed that the proton conductivity for the conventional Nafion® membranes decreased over 100°C but the conductivity for the Nafion®/Im-CNT remained at a nearly constant value above 100°C up to 120°C. Thus, the nanocomposite based on Nafion/imidazole functionalized CNT can be considered as an anhydrous PEMFC membrane for high-temperature applications.     

The role of high-resolution imaging in the evaluation of nanosystems for bioactive encapsulation and targeted nanotherapy

Nanotechnology has already started to significantly impact many industries and scientific fields including biotechnology, pharmaceutics, food technology and semiconductors. Nanotechnology-based tools and devices, including high-resolution imaging techniques, enable characterization and manipulation of materials at the nanolevel and further elucidate nanoscale phenomena and equip us with the ability to fabricate novel materials and structures. One of the most promising impacts of nanotechnology is in the area of nanotherapy. Employing nanosystems such as dendrimers, nanoliposomes, niosomes, nanotubes, emulsions and quantum dots, nanotherapy leads toward the concept of personalized medicine and the potential for early diagnoses coupled with efficient targeted therapy. The development of smart targeted nanocarriers that can deliver bioactives at a controlled rate directly to the designated cells and tissues will provide better efficacy and reduced side effects. Nanocarriers improve the solubility of bioactives and allow for the delivery of not only small-molecule drugs but also the delivery of nucleic acids and proteins. This review will focus on nanoscale bioactive delivery and targeting mechanisms and the role of high-resolution imaging techniques in the evaluation and development of nanocarriers.